With special contributions by instructors from Reedley College: Eileen Apperson, Emily Berg, David Borofka, Deborah Borofka, Vanessa Buldo, Linda Cooley,

I Know

What I Want

To Say,

But I Don’t

Know How

To Say It __

Seventh Edition

By David Dominguez, English Instructor

With special contributions by instructors from Reedley College: Eileen Apperson, Emily Berg, David Borofka, Deborah Borofka, Vanessa Buldo, Linda Cooley,

Nicole Cooper, Rick Garza, Carey Karle, Deborah Lapp, Ryan LaSalle, Lori Levine, Deborah Lyons, Rebecca Snyder, Elaine Stamper, and Kate Watts. Special

thanks also to all my former and current embedded tutors, especially Laura Hand.

For by some innate power the true sublime uplifts our souls; we are filled with a

proud exaltation and a sense of vaunting joy, just as though we ourselves produced

what we had heard.

—Longinus, On the Sublime

But the torero bitten by duende gives us a lesson in Pythagorean music and makes

us forget he is always tossing his heart over the bull’s horns.

—Federico Garcia Lorca, “Play and Theory of the Duende”

This book is dedicated to the Students of Reedley College.

CHAPTER ONE: Sentence Structure

I. Writing Complete Sentences 7

II. Avoiding Incomplete Sentences 7

III. Understanding Run-On Sentences: the Comma Splice and the Sentence Fuse 8

IV. Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses 9

V. Mastering the Four Sentence Types 9

VI. Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax 11

CHAPTER TWO: Punctuation Marks

I. How to Use the Apostrophe 13

II. How to Use the Colon 14

III. How to Use the Comma 15

IV. How Not to Use the Comma 18

V. How to Use the Dash 18

VI. How to Use the Ellipsis Mark 19

VII. How to Use Quotation Marks 20

VIII. How Not to Use Quotation Marks 20

IX. How to Use the Semicolon 21

CHAPTER THREE: Grammar

I. Adjectives and Adverbs 23

II. Prepositions 24

III. Pronouns 27

IV. Verb Errors 31

CHAPTER FOUR: Mechanics

I. Capitalization 39

II. Hyphens 40

III. Italics and Underlining 40

IV. Numbers 41

V. Titles of Works 42

CHAPTER FIVE: Maintaining an Academic Voice

I. Avoid Clichés 44

II. Avoid Slang 44

III. Avoid Social Media Jargon 45

IV. Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View 46

V. Proper Academic Voice 47

CHAPTER SIX: The Research Process and Avoiding Plagiarism

I. Sources 49

II. Evaluate Your Sources 49

III. Reedley College Database 49

IV. Staying Organized 49

V. Plagiarism 50

CHAPTER SEVEN: MLA Guidelines

I. How to Format an Essay According to the MLA Guidelines 52

II. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction 53

III. How to Summarize 53

IV. How to Paraphrase 54

V. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—Final Thoughts 54

VI. How to Use Signal Phrases and Parenthetical Citations with the Author Named in a Signal Phrase Method for In-text

Citations 55

VII. How to Format Short and Long Quotations of Prose and Poetry 59

VIII. How to use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics 61

IX. How to Write a Works Cited Page and Sample Works Cited Page 62

X. How to Write an Annotated Bibliography and Sample Annotated Bibliography 71

XI. Common Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies 73

CHAPTER EIGHT: How to Write an Essay

An Introduction

SECTION ONE: The Prompt 75

SECTION TWO: Prewriting—Brainstorming 75

SECTION THREE: Prewriting—Making an Outline 76

SECTION FOUR: Write Your Essay—Follow These Steps When You Write Your Essay 80

SECTION FIVE: Sample Student Essay by Maria Arias 82

CHAPTER NINE: Additional Sample Student Essays

An Introduction

“Chalice of Eternal Glory” by Laura Hand 89

“Through the Muck and the Mire” Nicole Huebert 98

“Coyotes in Search of a Home” by Gabriella Quijano 102

“Dancing to Violins” by Veronica Vela 111

CHAPTER TEN: Commonly Confused Words

I. ONE: Commonly Confused Words 116

CHAPTER ELEVEN: Grammar Terms and Their Definitions

I. Grammar Terms and Their Definitions 122

CHAPTER TWELVE: Practice Paragraphs

I. Fragments 128

II. Fragments, Comma Splices, and Sentence Fuses 129

III. Commas 130

INDEX 131

WORKS CITED 133

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 134

CHAPTER ONE: Sentence Structure

I. Writing Complete Sentences

II. Avoiding Incomplete Sentences

III. Understanding Run-On sentences: the Comma Splice and the Sentence Fuse

IV. Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses

V. Mastering the Four Sentence Types

VI. Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax

ONE: Writing Complete Sentences

A complete sentence is a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought . The grammatical term for a

complete sentence is independent clause.

1. A subject is what the sentence is about.

 Example: (S) I drank a cup of coffee at Starbucks.

2. A verb is the action of the sentence.

 Example: My friends and I (V) completed our homework at the library.

The subject and verb must form a complete thought. To help yourself understand the concept of a complete and logical thought ,

read the word groups below. Which one or ones contains a complete thought?

1. After the dog ate his food. (lacks a complete thought)

2. Because the dog ate his food too fast. (lacks a complete thought)

3. Unless the dog is able to go outside and play in the leaves. (lacks a complete thought)

4. After the dog ate his food, he went outside and played in the leaves. (independent clause)

Example “4” is a complete thought. It contains a subject, which is “he”; it contains a verb, which is “went”; and it contains a

complete thought: what happened?—the dog went outside and played in the leaves.

 To recognize whether or not a group of words contains a subject, a verb, and a complete and logical thought, you must

read, which is just one reason reading is important to young writers. For example, read the following group of words:

Jack and Jill broke up. Is this a complete sentence or an incomplete sentence? “Jack and Jill” are the subjects and

“broke up” is the verb. Does this group of words contain a complete and logical thought? Yes. What happened? They

broke up. While we may want to know why they broke up, it isn’t necessary. We’re just being nosey. A good reader

will see that we have subject, a verb, and a complete thought, and thus, we have a complete sentence, which is also

known as an independent clause.

TWO: Avoiding Incomplete Sentences

If a group of words does not contain a subject, a verb, or a complete thought, it is an incomplete sentence. The grammatical term

for an incomplete sentence is fragment. Occasionally, incomplete sentences begin with one of the following types of words: after,

although, because, before, if, unless, until, and when. These words are called subordinating conjunctions because the sentences

that they begin will require extra information to be complete. You can begin a sentence with any word that you want, including

the word because, as long as you have a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

As writers, you have three ways to correct a fragment:

1. Complete the sentence by combining word groups:

 During the winter months.

 During the winter months, I mulch the garden with compost.

2. Remove subordinating conjunctions:

 Fragment that begins with a dependent word: When I mulch the garden.

 Fragment revised by removing the dependent word: I mulch the garden.

3. Rewrite the fragment:

 Fragment lacking a complete thought: When I mulch the garden.

 Fragment revised so that it contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought: When I mulch the garden, (S) my

tomato plants (V) produce more fruit during the summer. (What happens? The tomato plants produce more fruit,

which gives the reader a complete thought).

 Creative writers, such as poets and fiction writers, often use fragments to emphasize important points they want to

make or to bring attention to key emotions. Composition students, however, strive to convey information as clearly as

possible, so composition students, unless directed otherwise by their instructors, should write complete sentences and

avoid incomplete sentences through careful proofreading.

THREE: Understanding Run-On Sentences: the Comma Splice and the Sentence Fuse

There are two specific types of run-on sentences. A run-on sentence is not, for example, a sentence that “goes on and on,” nor is a

run-on sentence a sentence that “needs something,” and finally, a run-on sentence is not a sentence that “is too long.” A group of

words is considered a run-on sentence if it is a comma splice or a sentence fuse.

1. Definition of a comma splice: if two independent clauses are joined with a comma that is not followed by a

coordinating conjunction, the sentence is called a comma splice. You may place a comma between independent clauses

as long as the comma is followed by a coordinating conjunction. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the

English language: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. An easy way to remember the coordinating conjunct ions is to use the

acronym fanboys.

2. Definition of a sentence fuse: if two independent clauses are joined with neither punctuation nor a coordinating

conjunction, the sentence is called a sentence fuse.

Here are several examples of comma splices and sentence fuses. The independent clauses have been identified with (IC). In

addition, the comma splices have been identified with (CS), and the sentence fuses have been identified with (SF).

1. (IC) Today I cut the lawn (CS), (IC) it was very green.

2. (IC) Today I cut the lawn (CS), (IC) it was very green (CS), (IC) my father was pleased.

3. (IC) I am going to help my father build a fence (SF) (IC) the old one is infested with termites.

4. (IC) I am going to help my father build a fence (CS), (IC) the old one is infested with termites (SF) (IC) the posts are

rotten.

 To correct comma splices and sentence fuses, proofread carefully and pay special attention to the parts of the sentences

and use coordinating conjunctions and punctuation correctly.

FOUR: Correcting Comma Splices and Sentence Fuses

Writers have six ways to join independent clauses. By using these methods, the writer avoids or, if necessary, revises comma

splices and fused sentences.

1. Join together independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. There are seven coordinating

conjunctions in the English Language: “and,” “or,” “nor,” “but,” for,” “so,” and “yet.”

• Last night, I sprayed the grape vines with soap , and my wife pruned the fig trees.

2. Join together independent clauses with a semicolon if the independent clauses are closely related.

• My wife and I work in the yard every evening; the work releases the day’s stress.

3. Join together independent clauses with a colon if the second independent clause summarizes or explains the first

independent clause.

• During the summer months, the dogs dig holes under the Sequoias and fall asleep: the cold dirt soothes their

panting hearts throughout the afternoon.

4. Join together independent clauses with a dash to add emphasis to the second independent clause if it contains emotional

significance or makes an especially important point .

• The blackberry vines are bursting with blossoms—the fruit on our breakfast table will be sweet and plentiful.

5. Join together independent clauses with a period.

• The plum trees need to be pruned. The nectarine trees are already budding.

6. Join together independent clauses with a subordinating conjunction.

 I planted an herb garden because I love cooking with fresh ingredients.

 Writers pay attention to how they use punctuation to join independent clauses. Again, reading your work carefully,

especially during the revision process, is important because you will recognize the relationship between the clauses. For

example, a semicolon says the independent clauses are closely related; a colon says not only are the independent

clauses closely related, but in addition, the second independent clause summarizes or explains the first independent

clause; and the dash takes the reader in a different direction by placing special emphasis on key information or essential

emotions. By joining your independent clauses carefully, your work becomes infused with the art of clarity because

you are capable of saying what you want to say.

FIVE: Mastering the Four Sentence Types

There are four sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Writers use a variety of sentence types for

several reasons. For example, if a writer uses all simple sentences, his work might become monotonous. On the other hand, if his

essay contains a balance of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences, he moves the reader fluidly through

his writing while simultaneously maintaining the focus and organization of his ideas. To know how to write a variety sentences,

you must understand two basic syntactical units: the subordinate clause and the independent clause. Once you understand these

two sentence parts, you can learn how to write the four sentence types.

The subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence; thus, it is a fragment. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating

conjunctions, such as after, although, because, before, if, unless, until, and when and contain both a subject and verb. Subordinate

clauses tell who, where, how, why, when, or under what conditions the main part of the sentence took place. Subordinate clauses

may also begin with the four relative pronouns: who, whom, which, and that. Remember, the main part of the sentence is the part

of the sentence that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Subordinate clauses can be at the beginning of a sentence, in the

middle of a sentence, or at the end of a sentence. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are labeled (SC).

1. (SC) Because I woke up early, I cooked a big breakfast for my family.

2. I went for a six mile run (SC) after I came home from work.

3. I skip the gym on Mondays, (SC) which are my long days at work.

The independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. It can stand alone as a

complete sentence.

1. I drink a strong cup of coffee between all my classes.

2. The Dallas Cowboys are the greatest football team ever.

Remember, there are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. These four types of

sentences are written by combing together subordinate clauses and independent clauses. In the examples below, the subordinate

clauses have been labeled (SC) and the independent clauses have been labeled (IC).

1. The simple sentence contains exactly one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.

 (IC)My favorite baseball team is the Los Angeles Dodgers.

 (IC)I drive a 1966 Chevy pickup truck.

2. The compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.

 (IC)I was starving, but (IC) my wallet was empty.

 (IC)One of my favorite poetry books is The Sky by Christopher Buckley, and (IC) one of my favorite novels is

Hunger by Knut Hamsun.

3. The complex sentence contains at least one subordinate clause plus exactly one independent clause.

 (SC)After I picked tomatoes and jalapenos in the garden, (IC) I made fresh salsa.

 (IC)I worked at Red Carpet Carwash (SC) while I was still in college.

 (IC)Fernando Valenzuela, (SC) who was born in a tiny village in Mexico, is my favorite baseball player.

4. The compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

 (SC)After I worked out at the gym, (IC) I took a shower, and (IC) then, we ate dinner.

 (SC)While my brother and I were playing golf, (IC) it started raining, but (IC) we didn’t care and finished our

round.

SIX: Avoiding Wordy, Confusing, and Vague Syntax

Students who are learning English, don’t read well-written material on a regular basis, don’t know or fully understand what they

are trying to say, or who are trying to sound smart , often form sentences that contain wordy and confusing syntax. Syntax refers

to the words a writer chooses to express a thought and the order the writer places them in to form a sentence. Below are two

groups of sentences. The first example contains wordy, confusing, and vague syntax. The second example has been revised so

that it reflects good sentence writing.

1. Here is a group of sentences that are wordy, confusing, and vague:

 (1)This one guy, he writes about himself. 2) He talks about many things important and life altering on a

momentous level to all human kind in existence. 3) For instance, he says he wanted to be an educated and that he

would do almost anything he had to do just to be an educated who could reach for the stars and make all his

dreams come true. 4) He taught himself how to do stuff wisely with tremendous determination until he finally

accomplished great feats of tough things. 5) He didn’t care the cost of whom pursuing educational commitments.

6) Therefore, this example of a human being that learned a lot is an important of how hard work can take you in

the long and windy road of success.

2. Here, the sentences have been rewritten to reflect good sentence writing:

 (1)In his autobiography, Frederick Douglass described how he learned to read and write. 2) As a child, Douglass

stole newspapers from his master and mistress, so he could learn to read. 3) To learn to write, he watched ship

carpenters mark scraps of timber with notes, and then, Douglass imitated them by writing letters on the sidewalk

with chalk. 4) By learning how to read and write, Douglass risked his life because his masters did not believe

slaves should be educated. 5) If they had caught him, his masters would have punished him with the whip. 6)

Despite the dangers of becoming an educated young man, Douglass learned how write so well he forged his own

pass, so he could travel safely to New York and become a free man.

In the revision, sentence 1 says “autobiography” instead of “writes about himself,” and it contains the name “Frederick Douglass”

instead of “This one guy”; by making these changes, the writer avoids vague sentence writing. The second sentence in the

revision says Douglass “stole newspapers” because he wanted to “learn to read.” These changes offer the reader specific

information whereas sentence 2 in the original piece of writing continues to be vague with language like “many things”; in

addition, the student probably doesn’t know what he is talking about , so he tries to disguise his lack of reading knowledge with

elevated language, such as “life altering,” “momentous level,” and “to all human kind in existence.” This kind of sentence writing

simply leads to vague and empty language. In the original paragraph, sentence 3 becomes wordy. For example, the phrase “to be

an educated” is repeated twice. While good writers will repeat certain words and phrases for emphasis, this student is being

redundant because he is repeating himself without purpose. This same sentence also reflects poor syntax. In this case, the word

“man” has been left out twice, which makes the syntax very confusing: the sentence just doesn’t make sense. Sentence 4 refers to

“stuff,” but the revision refers to “learning how to read and write.” Sentence 5 just doesn’t make sense and has been completely

revised. Finally, notice how the original paragraph contains several clichés. For example, sentence 6 contains, “The long and

windy road of success,” but the revised sentence simply contains factual information, which is much better writing.

CHAPTER TWO: Punctuation Marks

I. How to Use the Apostrophe

II. How to Use the Colon

III. How to Use the Comma

IV. How Not to Use the Comma

V. How to Use the Dash

VI. How to Use the Ellipsis Mark

VII. How to Use Quotation Marks

VIII. How Not to Use Quotation Marks

IX. How to Use the Semicolon

ONE: How to Use the Apostrophe

One of the most commonly misused punctuation marks is the apostrophe. Following are rules for using the apostrophe.

1. Add ’s to a noun to show possession.

 The baby’s pacifier fell on the floor.

2. Add ’s to the end of nouns showing joint possession.

 Alma and Gaby’s taxi is outside waiting for them. OR Alma’s and Gaby’s taxi is outside waiting for them.

3. Add ’s to the end of indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, everyone, and someone, to show possession.

 I found someone’s wallet in the street.

4. Add ’s to the end of compound words to show possession.

 My brother-in-law’s crane operating business opened this week.

5. Use the apostrophe to show the omission of letters in a contraction.

 My Dad couldn’t go to the Fresno State football game, so he gave me his ticket.

Couldn’t = could not, the apostrophe replaces the “o.”

6. Use the apostrophe with a year when the first two numerals are dropped.

 I was born in the ’90s.

7. Use the apostrophe with plural letters.

 Proper handwriting requires a dot over your i’s.

8. If a singular possessive noun ends with an “s,” use ’s unless the pronunciation becomes awkward. If the pronunciation

becomes awkward, use the apostrophe, but omit the second “s.”

 The pinto beans’ aroma filled the kitchen.

Saying “beans’s” is awkward, so omit the second “s.”

9. If a proper noun ends in “s,” use the apostrophe but omit the second “s.”

 James’ coffee mug was still on his trunk when he left the parking lot .

10. If a plural noun ends with an “s,” use the apostrophe but omit the second “s.”

 The flowers’ blooms wilted because I forgot to water them.

11. Do not use apostrophes with possessive pronouns, such as his, hers, ours, theirs, whose, and yours.

 The laundry piled on the couch is yours.

 Finally, resist the temptation to use the apostrophe for reasons other than what you see listed in these notes. If you

follow these notes consistently in your essays, you will express your ideas with clarity and authority.

TWO: How to Use the Colon

For most of the rules associated with the colon, you must make sure the colon is following an independent clause; otherwise, you

are probably using the colon incorrectly. Used correctly, however, the colon is one of the most helpful punctuation marks because

it can help you present and emphasize an important point in the most focused and organized manner possible.

1. Use the colon between two independent clauses when the second independent clause explains or summarizes the first

independent clause. To use this rule effectively, you must know what you are trying to say and pay close attention to

how you are saying it.

 I earned an A on my term paper: I worked on it until my knuckles bled.

The second independent clause explains the first independent clause because “worked on it until my knuckles bled” explains why

he earned an “A”: he worked very hard.

2. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention to an app ositive. The appositive names a specific noun in

the independent clause.

 After I graduate from Reedley College, I want to attend one university: Stanford.

In this case, “Stanford” is the appositive because it names a noun in the previous independent clause.

3. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention to a series. A series includes three items or more.

 This semester I’m focusing on several challenging subjects: chemistry, English, and math.

“This semester I’m focusing on several challenging subjects” is an independent clause. “[C]hemistry, English, and math” is a list.

Thus, they are joined with a colon.

4. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention to a direct quotation.

 In his autobiography Always Running: La Vida Loca, Gang Days in L.A., Luis Rodriguez made a statement that

inspired me to major in English: “Reading saved my life.”

“In his autobiography Always Running: La Vida Loca, Gang Days in L.A., Luis Rodriguez made a statement that inspired me to

major in English” is an independent clause introducing a direct quotation. The direct quotation is “Reading saved my life.” Thus,

the independent clause and the direct quotation are joined with a colon.

5. Use the colon to introduce a long quotation when following the MLA guidelines. In prose, a long quotation includes

five lines or more. In poetry, a long quotation includes four lines or more.

 In his autobiography, Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez, Rodriguez states:

After years spent unwilling to admit its attractions, I gestured nostalgically towards the past. I

yearned for that time when I had not been so alone. I became more impatient with books. I wanted

experience more immediate. I feared the library’s silence. I silently scorned the gray, timid faces

around me. I grew to hate the growing pages of my dissertation… (76)

In this case, the text preceding the colon is not an independent clause. Rather, it is fragment because it lacks a complete t hought.

The fragment is serving as a signal phrase because it is introducing a long quotation. Thus, the writer, places a colon between the

signal phrase and the direct quotation. For more information on introducing direct quotations, please see the sections of this

handbook that cover the MLA guidelines.

6. Rules will help you construct sentences, express thoughts, and present information vital to your essay. Resist the

temptation to drop colons into your work unless they follow these rules. For example, the following sentences contain

colons that have not been used correctly.

 My favorite novels are: Zorba the Greek, Growth of the Soil, and Old School.

“My favorite novel are” is not an independent clause.

 I went to school: On my way, I got a flat tire on Manning.

“On my way, I got a flat tire on Manning” does not summarize or explain the first independent clause.

 The two examples above represent very common errors associated with the colon. Often times, students will place a

colon between two independent clauses in which the second independent clause does not summarize or explain the first

independent clause, or they place a colon after a fragment where there should be an independent clause. Remember,

pay attention to what you write and follow the rules. If you use a colon but don’t have a rule to back it up, rewrite the

sentence, or, if needed, use a different punctuation mark.

THREE: How to Use the Comma

WHAT TO DO: There are several comma rules in the English language. Unfortunately, the rules are not used consistently by

writers or even taught consistently in grammar books. That being said, if you follow these rules consistently when writing your

essays, you will avoid comma errors and present your ideas to the reader more clearly.

1. Use the comma after introductory word groups, such as subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, and participial

phrases that are followed by independent clauses. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions like

although, because, if, unless, until, and when and contain a subject and verb. Prepositional phrases begin with

prepositions, such as but not limited to, above, after, before, from, in, on, out, over, through, and under and end with a

noun or noun equivalent (a noun equivalent is a word or group of words functioning as a noun). Participial phrases

begin with a present or past tense verbal that describes a noun or pronoun in the main part of the sentences, which is an

independent clause.

 When I get home from school tonight, I have to study.

“When I get home from school tonight” is a subordinate clause, and “I have to study” is an independent clause; thus, the writer

places a comma between them.

 Under the freeway overpass, I drove over a 2×4 and popped my tire.

“Under the freeway overpass” is a prepositional phrase, and “I drove over a 2×4 and popped my tire” is an independent clause;

thus, the writer places a comma between them. (Under is the preposition, and overpass is the noun or noun equivalent).

 Stuck in a snowstorm in the middle of the Grapevine, my brother couldn’t make it to Thanksgiving dinner.

“Stuck in a snowstorm in the middle of the Grapevine” is a participial phrase and “my brother couldn’t make it to Thanksgiving

dinner” is an independent clause; thus, the writer places a comma between them.

2. Use the comma with a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, so, yet) to join independent clauses.

 After school, I drove home and took a nap, for I was exhausted.

“After school” is a prepositional phrase. “I drove home and took a nap” is an independent clause. “[F]or” is a coordinating

conjunction. “I was exhausted” is also an independent clause. Thus, the writer needs a comma after “school” and “nap.”

3. Use the comma to join items in a series. A series includes at least three items. Place the comma between all items to

prevent confusion.

 After school, I drove home, took a nap, and ate dinner.

“After school” is a prepositional phrase. “I drove home, took a nap, and ate dinner” is an independent clause. Therefore, the

writer needs a comma after “school.” The independent clause contains three items that form a series: I drove home, took a nap,

and ate dinner. These three items form a list and are separated with commas to prevent confusion.

4. Use commas between coordinate adjectives but not cumulative adjectives. Coordinate adjectives describe a noun or

pronoun separately from one another. You know the adjectives are coordinate if you can place the word “and” between

each one and rearrange them while maintaining fluidity and clarity. Cumulative adjectives, on the other hand, will not

make sense with the word “and” between them and cannot be rearranged.

 After I worked out at the gym, I felt a burning, screaming pain in my rotator cuff.

In this example, the adjectives “burning” and “screaming” are coordinate because they describe the “pain” independently of one

another. Notice how you can remove the comma between “burning” and “screaming” and replace it with the word “and”; in

addition, we can rearrange the adjectives (After I worked out, I felt a screaming and burning pain in my rotator cuff).

 The full blue moon sank below the horizon.

Here, the writer does not place a comma between the adjectives “full” and “blue” because they do not describe the moon

separately from one another; thus, they are cumulative adjectives. They work piggy -back style: “blue” modifies “moon” and

“full” modifies “blue moon.”

5. Use commas to set off parenthetical information. Parenthetical information appears in the middle of a sentence. The

information is parenthetical if it can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. If removing the

information changes the sentence’s main point or the sentence just doesn’t make sense, the information is not

parenthetical, so do not use commas.

 I took a nap, because I was exhausted, after school.

“[B]ecause I was exhausted” appears in the middle of the sentence. If the writer removes it, he is left with “I took a nap after

school,” which is still a complete sentence. While it may be slightly different than the original sentence, it still gets the main

point across, which is taking a nap. Therefore, “because I was exhausted” is parenthetical information and must be marked off

with commas. NOTE: If a subordinate clause or phrase, prepositional phrase, or participial phrase appears in the middle of a

sentence, it may act as parenthetical information and should be identified with commas.

6. Use the comma to set off nonessential information that begins with “especially,” “such as,” “which,” “who,” “whom,”

and “whose.” Nonessential information may appear in the middle or at the end of an independent clause. If, however,

removing the information changes the reader’s understanding of the sentence’s main point, or the sentence just doesn’t

make sense, the information is essential information, and you should not use the commas.

 My truck is white, which is a very easy color to maintain.

“My truck is white” is an independent clause. It is followed by nonessential information: which is a very easy color to maintain.

The writer has placed a comma between “white” and “which” to help the reader see the nonessential information.

7. Use the comma to separate sharply contrasting elements. Sharply contrasting elements are often defined by the words

“not” and “unlike.”

 I want to go home and study, not sleep.

To recognize sharply contrasting elements, writers must know what they are try ing to say and proofread their work carefully. “I

want to go home and study” is an independent clause while “not sleep” is an example of a sharply contrasting element. Study

contrasts with sleep: one is about work, and the other one is about rest. These two contrasting elements are identified with the

comma and the word “not.”

8. Use commas after or around conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases. Conjunctive adverbs include also, finally, first,

however, instead, next, second, soon, still, third, and thus. Transitional phrases include as a matter of fact, as a result,

in addition, for example, in fact, in other words, and in the first place.

 I want to go home and take a nap. Instead, I’m going to study.

 I worked out for several hours; as a result, I was sore the next day.

Transitional phrases work extremely well at the beginning of an independent clause or with a semicolon between two

independent clauses. In the first example, the conjunctive adverb “instead” is at the beginning of a new independent clause. In the

second example, the transitional phrase “as a result” is used after a semicolon to join two independent clauses. Either way, the

transitional phrase is followed by a comma.

 I went to school and still worked-out.

In this case, the transitional phrase is a conjunctive adverb: still. Notice how the author did not place commas around “still.” He

omitted the commas because there is no danger of misreading the sentence without them. You, as the writer, may make the same

decision when dealing with transitional phrases placed in the middle of an independent clause. However, if the transitional phrase

is at the beginning of an independent clause, place a comma after it consistently to maintain clarity.

9. Use a comma after a signal phrase introducing a short direct quotation. If the quotation is prose, it is considered short if

it contains four lines or less. If the quotation contains poetry, it is considered short if it contains three lines or less.

Signal phrases contain the name of the author or speaker and a signal word, such as said, says, believed, thinks, or

thought. Many English instructors will be satisfied if you use “said” on a consistent basis and follow it with a comma.

 Robert Frost said, “No tears in the writer, no tears in the reader. No surprise in the writer, no surprise in the

reader.”

In this example, the signal phrase is “Robert Frost said.” Robert Frost is the speaker, and said is the signal word. The signal

phrase is followed by a short prose quotation containing four lines or less. Thus, a comma is placed between the signal phrase and

the direct quotation.

FOUR: How Not to Use the Comma

When writing your essays, resist the temptation to use commas where they look right or sound right. Instead, make sure you have

an actual rule that justifies each comma even if you have to look two or three times at every comma while proofreading. Here are

two comma errors students often make (if you can eliminate these two errors, chances are your punctuation will improve):

1. Students (and professional writers) often place a comma before the word “because” even though the comma isn’t

necessary.

 I went to Dollar Tree, because we needed plastic cups for our end-of-the-year party.

The comma after “Tree” simply isn’t needed. There is no comma rule that says always place a comma before the word

“because.”

2. Students also tend to place a comma before the words “and” and “but” no matter what.

 I adopted a puppy, and a cat.

The comma after the word “puppy” is completely unnecessary. When do you place a comma before “and” and “but?” See rules 2

and 3.

FIVE: How to Use the Dash

Using the dash effectively helps writers emphasize essential information in their work. Thus, the dash helps the writer express

himself with greater clarity. To use the dash effectively, a writer must know what he is trying to say and craft his sentences .

1. Use the dash between two independent clauses to add emphasis to the second independent clause if the second

independent clause is making an especially important point or if it contains emotional significance. To make a dash,

type two hyphens side by side (–). Do not place a space before or after the hyphens (or dash). When you type two

hyphens side by side, your word processing program may join them together.

 I jumped when the phone rang—I knew it was the hospital, and my heart stopped.

In this example, the writer has used the dash to emphasize the second independent clause because it contains emotional

significance. It contains emotional significance because he is anticipating a call from the hospital with good news or bad news.

The second independent clause is given even more emotional significance because it contains the word “heart.” Notice, also, how

the writer could have used the colon between the independent clauses since the second independent clause explains the first

independent clause. In this case, however, the writer decided to emphasize emotion with the dash rather than explain why he

jumped. These are the kinds of decisions good writers make to express themselves as clearly as possible.

2. You may also use the dash to emphasize information in the middle of the sentence. While parentheses indicate extra

information in the middle of a sentence, the dashes indicate information that makes an especially important point or

contains emotional significance.

 Next fall, I am attending the University of Arizona—home to one of the best MFA programs in the nation—to

actualize my dream of becoming a poet.

In this example, dashes are placed around “home to one of the best MFA programs in the nation” because it is important

information since this school will help the writer reach his goals. Writers need to remember to use dashes sparingly. You, as a

writer, must earn the right to use it. If you drop dashes where a period works just as well, you will confuse the reader, and the

dash will no longer help you express your thoughts and emotions.

SIX: How to Use the Ellipsis Mark

The ellipsis mark plays an essential role in citing direct quotations, for it helps the writer focus on specific parts of a direct

quotation.

1. Use the ellipsis mark within a direct quotation or at the end of a quotation if you removed whole sentences or parts of

sentences from the original text to focus on a specific part. If you cut out parts of a direct quotation, make sure it still

makes sense and flows. The following examples are based on the following direct quotation by Dylan Thomas’ lecture

at MIT titled “A Few Words of a Kind”: “Poetry is what in a poem makes you laugh, cry, prickle, be silent, makes your

toe nails twinkle, makes you want to do this or that or nothing, makes you know that you are alone in the unknown

world, that your bliss and suffering is forever shared and forever all your own.”

 Thomas said, “Poetry is what in a poem makes you laugh, cry, prickle, be silent, makes your toe nails twinkle…”

In this example, the ellipsis mark is used because the quotation did not complete the sentence from the original text.

 Thomas said, “Poetry is what in a poem makes you…want to do this or that or nothing…”

Here the writer used the ellipsis mark to piece together parts of the original text and because the quotation did not complet e the

sentence from the original text.

 Thomas said that poetry, “makes you know that you are alone in the unknown world, that your bliss and suffering

is forever shared and forever all your own.”

Finally, notice how even though the quotation picked up in the middle of a sentence, the quotation did not begin with an ellipsis

mark; it simply began with a lowercase letter to match the case from the original text (please see example 1 below).

Avoid misusing the ellipsis mark.

1. Never place an ellipsis mark at the beginning of a direct quotation (if your quotation begins in the middle of a sentence,

lowercase the first letter).

 Thomas said poetry is something “that makes your toe nails twinkle.”

While the direct quotation does pick up in the middle of a sentence from the original text (“that makes your toe nails twinkle”),

you do not need to begin the direct quotation with an ellipsis mark. Simply begin with the appropriate lowercase letter, which is

“t.”

 Creative writers, such as fiction writers, poets, and nonfiction writers, like to use the ellipsis mark to make the reader

think on their own, create a cliff hanger, or to imply there is more to come. In expository essay writing, however, avoid

using the ellipsis mark in those ways: expository essay writers should strive to express their thoughts as clearly as they

possibly can.

SEVEN: How to Use Quotation Marks

Using quotation marks correctly in an essay is essential. Otherwise, your reader may not be able to recognize the difference

between your writing and research that you have incorporated into your work. In addition to using quotation marks correctly,

make sure you are not misusing them.

1. Use quotation marks to identify short direct quotations of prose or poetry (four lines of prose or less from the original

text or three lines of poetry or less from the original text).

 In The Art of Fiction, James Garner says, “We are moved by what happens, not by the whimpering or bawling of

the writer’s presentation” (116).

 Do not use quotation marks when referring to the titles of your own essays.

2. Quotation marks should also be placed around the titles of different types of works, such as articles, essays, poems,

short stories, and songs. (For other types of works, please see italics).

 In “Last Hymn to Night,” the poet Frank X. Gaspar explores his desperate desire to write.

3. Students often ask, “When do punctuation marks go inside vs. outside quotation marks?” Here is a simple chart that

will usually keep you out of trouble if you follow it consistently.

 .”

 ,”

 ?”

 !”

 …”

 ”;

 ”:

 ”—

 ” (3).

EIGHT: How Not to Use Quotation Marks

Finally, here are a few common errors students make with quotation marks. Resist the temptation to use the quotation marks

incorrectly:

1. Do not use quotation marks for emphasis (use italics).

 I “earned” a good grade on my final because I studied so hard.

2. Do not use quotation marks around slang or clichés.

 I drive the speed limit because I would rather “be safe than sorry.”

3. Do not use quotation marks around words used as words (use italics).

 One of my least favorite words in the English language is “can’t.”

NINE: How to Use the Semicolon

Use the semicolon to help you organize your thoughts and information so that your reader understands what you want to say.

Here are three simple rules that will make you a better writer. Notice how the independent clause once again plays a very

important role.

1. Consider using the semicolon to join independent clauses that are closely related.

 My baby girl cries when she is hungry; she makes my ears ring.

The two independent clauses are related because they are both about the crying baby, so the writer uses a semicolon to join t hem.

2. Use the semicolon to join independent clauses if the second independent clause begins with a conjunctive adverb, such

as first, also, consequently, moreover, and finally.

 I attended the University of Chicago and majored in Chemistry; then, I completed my training at the UCLA

School of Medicine.

Here, the independent clauses are closely related because they show a chain of chronological events. The writer joined them

together with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb to help the closely related events flow forward with clarity: first he went to

Chicago and then UCLA.

3. Use the semicolon to join independent clauses if the second independent clause begins with a transitional phrase, such

as in the first place, for example, in addition, and in conclusion.

 Every year I plant a garden for several reasons; for example, planting a garden honors my mother.

Again, we have two independent clauses that are closely related. In this case, they are joined with a transitional word or phrase

(for example) to, again, help maintain clarity and fluidity.

4. Use the semicolon to separate items in a series that contain internal punctuation.

 My English instructor said that if we want to do well in his class we must do several things, such as bring our

dictionary, thesaurus, and composition reader to every lecture; not forget our school supp lies, which include

pencils, sheets of paper, and highlighters; and that we must turn off and put away our cell phones, not leave them

on the desk and text.

In this sentence, you have three items. The first item states which books to bring to class, the second item describes several

school supplies needed in class, and the last item addresses proper behavior. Each of these items contains internal punctuation.

Thus, the semicolon is used to clearly separate those items because a comma would have made the sentence confusing.

5. The last rule for using the semicolon is to follow rules 1-4. Again, resist the temptation to drop punctuation marks

wherever you please. If you use the semicolon, make sure you know what rule justifies its use; otherwise, you run the

risk of confusing the reader.

CHAPTER THREE: Grammar

I. Adjectives and Adverbs

II. Prepositions

III. Pronouns

IV. Verb Errors

ONE: Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives modify nouns. Usually, adjectives are placed before the noun they modify. Adjectives answer specific questions: what

kind of, which, and how many.

1. Gary Soto writes poems.

In this sentence, poems is a noun. If you place an adjective before the noun, the reader will understand what kind of poetry Gary

Soto writes.

2. Gary Soto writes narrative poems.

Narrative is an adjective. It tells the reader what kind of poetry Soto writes. Here is another example:

3. I read Moby Dick over the summer; it was a novel.

In it was a novel, the noun is novel. So far, it does not have an adjective.

4. I read Moby Dick over the summer; it was Melville’s greatest novel.

Now, the clause has been revised so that it has an adjective, which is greatest. It comes before the noun novel and tells the reader

which novel: Melville’s greatest.

5. The taco salad tasted spicy.

Here, the noun is taco salad; it is followed by the verb tasted. Next, we have the adjective spicy (and in this case the adjective is

following the noun). As mentioned earlier, adjectives are usually placed before nouns. But when the verb is “be,” “feel,” “taste,”

“smell,” “sound,” “look,” “appear,” and “seem,” the adjective follows the noun.

Adverbs, on the other hand, modify adjectives, other adverbs, or verbs. Adverbs usually end with –ly but sometimes they do not

end with –ly. While adjectives describe what kind of, which, and how many, adverbs describe how, when, and why.

1. At the gym, I squatted extremely heavy weights and pulled my hamstrings.

In this example, the adverb is “extremely,” and it is modifying the adjective “heavy.”

2. He ran gruelingly fast and won the race by over ten seconds.

Here, the adverb is “gruelingly” because it is modifying the adverb “fast,” which is modifying the verb “ran.” In this case, the

adverb “fast” does not end in –ly.

3. The sun shined brightly over the field workers.

This sentence contains the verb “shined,” which has been modified by the adverb “brightly.”

Here are several sentences that demonstrate how easily adjective and adverbs are used incorrectly. By learning the rules and by

carefully proofreading your work, you will begin to eliminate these errors from your writing.

1. Incorrect: He drove slow.

2. Correct: He drove slowly.

“Slow” is modifying the verb “drove,” which is why it needs to be an adverb.

1. Incorrect: The hungrily baby cried for another bottle of formula. 2. Correct: The hungry baby cried for another bottle of formula.

This one probably seems obvious. The adjective “hungry” is needed because it is describing the noun “baby.”

1. Incorrect: I dressed and ate breakfast hasty because I slept through the alarm clock.

2. Correct: I dressed and ate breakfast hastily because I slept through the alarm clock.

“Hasty” is incorrect because we need an adverb since we want to modify the verbs “dressed” and “ate.” Thus, we need “hastily.”

How did we dress and eat? We dressed and ate hastily.

1. Incorrect: The onions smelled wonderfully as they cooked.

2. Correct: The onions smelled wonderful as they cooked.

At first glance, “wonderfully” might look correct (one might think we are modifying the verb “ smelled”), but we are actually

modifying the “onions.” Since the “onions” are followed by the verb “smell,” the adjective comes after the noun (please see the

explanation under the definition of adjectives).

 Be careful: don’t go crazy with adjectives and adverbs. Sometimes, writers will overuse adjective, and adverbs to sound

smarter or more important. If you overuse them, however, they become distracting a less effective.

1. No: William Faulkner wrote smartly and beautifully and tragically about the South and created characters who clawed

through life.

2. Yes: William Faulkner wrote about the South and created characters who clawed though life.

TWO: Prepositions

According to “Prepositions,” “Prepositions are words or short phrases that identify the spatial (in space), directional, (the

direction in which something is moving), or temporal (in time) relationship of one or more people or things to other people or

things. There are over a hundred prepositions in the English language. In A Pocket Style Manual, Hacker says the most common

prepositions are about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, besides, between,

beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, than,

through, to, toward, under, unlike, until, up, with, within, and without. Below are definitions and examples. The definitions are

from the Webster’s New World Pocket Dictionary, fourth edition. The examples are based on the first definition provided by the

dictionary to focus on the most common meanings. This list of definitions and examples is for quick reference. For more detailed

definitions and examples, please see the Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries website.

1. About means “1. around 2. near to 3. just starting” (2).

 The game starts about 5:00pm. (around)

2. Above means “1. over 2. higher than” (2).

 The ivy grew above the fence. (over)

3. Across means “from one side to the other 2. on the other side 3. into contact with” (4).

 The dog ran across the street. (from one side to the other)

4. After means “1. behind 2. in search of 3. later than 4. because of ” (6).

 The grocery clerk ran after us with a bag we left at the check-out counter. (behind)

5. Against means “1. opposed to 2. so as to hit” (7)

 Last weekend, the Dodgers played against the Giants in San Francisco and swept the series. (opposed to)

6. Along means “1. on or beside the length of” (9).

 We parked the truck along the curb. (on or beside the length of)

7. Among means “1. surrounded by 2. in the group of ” (11).

 I found a sofa chair between the shelves and read a collection of poetry among the books. (surrounded by)

8. Around means “1. in a circle (about) 2. on all sides (of) 3. to the opposite direction 4. near” (18).

 I ran around the park until I had completed three miles. (in a circle)

9. At means “1. on; in; near 2. to, toward” (20).

 I’ll wait for you at the ticket booth before the game starts. (near)

10. Before means “1. ahead of 2. insight of 3. earlier than” (30).

 I opened the door for my wife so she could walk into the house before me. (ahead of)

11. Behind means “1. in the back of 2. later or slower than” (30).

 As we drove down the 99 in fog, my parents followed carefully behind us. (in the back of)

12. Below means “1. lower than; beneath” (31).

 We dropped our hooks below the surface of the lake and waited for a bite. (beneath)

13. Beside means “1. at the side of; near 2. as compared with 3. besides 4. aside from”

 At the movies, a man sat beside me who chomped on his popcorn for the whole two hours. (at the side of)

14. Besides means “1. in addition to” (32).

 Besides buying my books, I still need to buy all my other school supplies. (in addition to)

15. Between means “in the space or time separating 2. involving 3. joining 4. in the common possession of 5. one of” (32).

 Between now and my eighteenth birthday, I still have to wait three months. (in the space or time separating)

16. Beyond means “farther or later than; past 2. more than” (32).

 I have no idea what I want to do with my life beyond college. (farther or later than; past)

17. By means “1. near; beside 2. during 3. not later than 4. through 4. past” (46).

 The bookstore is located by the cafeteria. (near; beside).

18. Down means “1. down toward, into, along, etc” (100).

 As the clouds poured rain all day, water flowed down the street gutters.

19. During means “1. throughout 2. in the course of” (104).

 During the rain storm, the streets filled with water rising against the curb. (throughout)

20. Except means “Leaving out; but” (115).

 I want to visit New York City this summer except we don’t have enough money to pay for airline tickets and hotel

expenses. (but)

21. For means “1. in place of 2. in the interest of 3. in favor of 4. with the purpose of 5. in search of 6. meant to be received

used by 7. with respect to 8. because of 9. to the extent or duration of” (127).

 I bought my brother’s car for $1000. (in place of)

22. From means “1. beginning at 2. out of 3. originating with 4. out of the possibility, reach of 5. as not being like” (130).

 From 5:00pm until 12:00am I read for my English class. (beginning at)

23. In means “1. contained by 2. wearing 3. during 4. at the end of 5. with regard to 6. because of 7. into” (162).

 I keep my pencils in my backpack where my younger brother won’t find them. (contained by).

24. Inside means “1. in” (167).

 The students waited nervously inside the classroom because they hoped to add the class to their schedule. (in)

25. Into means “1. from outside to inside of 2. to the form, state of” (170).

 I walked into the Forum Hall, sat down, and waited for the poetry reading to begin.

26. Like means “1. similar(ly) to 2. typical of 3. in the mood for 4. indicative of” (187).

 The sunrise glowed like an orange above the Kings River. (similar[ly])

27. Near means “1. close to” (214).

 This morning, a woodpecker pounded at the oak near my bedroom window. (close to)

28. Of means “1. being or coming from 2. belonging to 3. having or continuing 4. concerning; about 5. during” (223).

 My father made a picnic table out of barn wood. (being or coming from)

29. Off means “1. not on 2. not dependent on 3. away from work; absent 4. below the standard of” (223).

 I jumped off the roof and still landed on my feet. (not on)

30. On means “1. held up by, covering, or attached to 2. near to 3. at the time of 4. connected with 5. in a state of” (225).

 This morning, I found freshly baked banana nut bread on the counter. (held up by)

31. Onto means “1. to and upon” (225).

 I took my books out of my backpack, lifted them onto my desk, and waited for class to begin. (to and upon).

32. Out means “1. out of” (228).

 I took my scantron and pencil out of my backpack and waited for the professor to give us the final exam. (out of)

33. Outside means “1. on or to the outside of” (33).

 After working most of the day in my office, I went outside and soaked up the sun.”

34. Over means “1. above 2. on; upon 3. across 4. during 5. more than 6. about” (229).

 While I was running through the park, I jumped over the benches for a better workout. (above)

35. Past means “beyond in time, space” (235).

 In my English 1A class, I made it past the drop deadline and knew I would finish the semester successfully.”

(beyond in time, space)

36. Since means “1. from then until now 2. at some time between then and now” (301).

 Since I graduated from college, I’ve been able to find my dream job as a speech pathologist. (from then until now)

37. Than “1. introduce[s] the second element in a comparison” (335).

 I would rather earn a college degree or a vocational certificate than work for minimum wage. (introduce[s] the

second element in a comparison)

38. Through means “1. from end to end 2. by way of 3. to places in 4. by means of 5. because of” (337).

 We drove through the tunnel. (from end to end)

39. To means “1. toward 2. as far as 3. on, onto, against 4. until” (339).

 While I was driving to school so I could turn in my essay, my tire popped. (toward)

40. Toward(s) means “1. in the direction of 2. concerning 3. near 4. for” (342).

 As we were driving toward Reedley, a hail storm started. (in the direction of)

41. Under means “1. lower than; below; beneath 2. covered by 3. less than 4. below and to the other side of 5. subject to 6.

undergoing” (352).

 My dog likes to rest his twenty pound head on my feet under the table. (beneath)

42. Unlike means “1. not like” (354).

 I eat meat, unlike my wife, who is vegetarian. (not like)

43. Until means “1. up to the time of 2. before” (355).

 I didn’t like reading until I realized it made me a better thinker and writer. (up to the time of).

44. Up means “1. up along, on, in” (354).

 As we drove up the windy mountain road, I felt very carsick. (up along).

45. With means “1. against 2. near to; in the care of company of 3. into 4. as a member of 5. concerning 6. compared to 7.

as well as 8. in the opinion of 9. as a result of 10. by means of 11. having or showing 12. to; onto 13. from 14. after”

(373).

 I wrestled with my essay until I had revised it to the best of my ability. (against)

46. Within means “1. inside 2. not beyond” (373).

 I heard meowing from within the carboard box I found in the alley. (inside)

47. Without means “1. lacking 2. avoiding” (372).

 When I travel, I work out without my weights by doing pushups. (lacking)

Finally, as Reedley College English instructor David Borofka says, do not end sentences with prepositions unless it’s impossible

to do otherwise.

1. Incorrect: The committee visited their representative that the petition was addressed to.

2. Correct: The committee visited their representative to whom the petition was addressed.

3. Never!: Where are the girls at?

THREE: Pronouns

Writers use pronouns in place of nouns. The most common pronouns are he, she, it, we, and they, but pronoun usage extends

beyond those five words. Students struggle in three areas of pronoun usage: pronoun-antecedent agreement, pronoun reference

and clarity, and with relative pronouns. Proofread your essays carefully to avoid errors in these three areas. Special thanks to

English instructor David Borofka for contributing his English 1A lecture notes on pronoun-antecedent agreement.

Pronoun-antecedent Agreement

The basic rule—Pronouns and the words they refer to (these words are called antecedents) must both be singular or plural and

clearly reference one another.

1. Incorrect: The boy crashed their bicycle into the garage door.

2. Correct: The boy crashed his bicycle into the garage door.

The second example is correct because “boy” and “his” are singular; in addition, the reader can clearly see that “boy” and “his”

reference one another.

With indefinite pronouns—A singular pronoun should be used when referring to an indefinite pronoun. Hacker provides an

excellent list of common indefinite pronouns: “anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything,

neither, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something” (33).

1. Incorrect: Neither of the twins regretted their outburst.

2. Correct: Neither of the twins regretted his outburst.

The second example is correct because “Neither,” which is an indefinite pronoun, refers to a singular pronoun, which is “his.”

1. Incorrect: Everybody ought to have sufficient money with them for the trip.

2. Correct: Everybody ought to have sufficient money with him or her for the trip.

Again, the second example is correct because “Everybody,” which is an indefinite pronoun, refers to the singular pronouns “him

or her.”

1. Incorrect: Each one of us ought to remember their role in this drama called life.

2. Correct: Each one of us ought to remember his or her role in this drama called life.

The second example is correct because “Each,” which is an indefinite pronoun, refers to the singular pronouns “his or her.”

With and, or, and nor—Antecedents joined by and require a plural pronoun; antecedents joined by or or nor require a pronoun

that agrees with the nearest noun:

1. Incorrect: My mother and father were united in his or her disappointment.

2. Correct: My mother and father were united in their disappointment.

The second example shows proper pronoun use because the nouns (antecedents) “mother” and “father” are joined by “and”; thus,

the writer uses the plural pronoun “their.”

1. Incorrect: Bring your book or your study guide and use them during the test.

2. Correct: Bring your book or your study guide and use it during the test.

Here, the second example is correct because the antecedents “book” and “study guide” are joined by “or” and because the

pronoun “it” agrees with the nearest antecedent (“study guide”) since both are singular.

1. Incorrect: Bring your book or your notes and use it during the test.

2. Correct: Bring your book or your notes and use them during the test.

The second example is once again correct. The nouns “book” and “notes” are joined by “or,” so the pronoun “them” agrees with

the nearest noun. In other words, “notes” and “them” are both plural.

Pronoun Reference and Clarity

When using any pronoun, make sure the pronouns directly reference antecedents. Pronouns like he, she, it, we, and they or

indefinite pronouns like anybody, anyone, anything, or even more vague pronouns like this, that, and which must reference

antecedents clearly or the reader will be confused. Students tend to write sentences with vague pronoun references when they are

trying to hide the fact that they don’t understand the material.

1. Incorrect: Rick read the magazine article and the newspaper column because he thought it would help him support

his thesis.

In this example, the antecedents are “magazine article” and “newspaper column.” The pronoun is “it.” Unfortunately, the

relationship between the antecedents and the pronoun is unclear. Does “it” refer to the “magazine?” Does “it” refer to the

“newspaper?” Or does “it” refer to the process of reading?

2. Correct: Rick read the magazine article and the newspaper column because he thought these would help him support

his thesis. Now the pronoun “it” has been replaced with “these” so that the relationship between the antecedents and the

pronoun is clearly defined.

1. Incorrect: After receiving a C on his first essay in English 1A, Ryan looked in the mirror and promised himself he’d do

anything to earn something better on his next one.

This sentence could be written with much greater detail. For example, what do “anything,” “something,” and “one” refer to?

2. Correct: After receiving a C on his first essay in English 1A, Ryan looked in the mirror and promised himself he’d buy

his text books, read them, attend every class meeting, and visit his professor during office hours to earn an A on his

next assignment.

The revised sentence is much stronger. The indefinite pronouns have been replaced with concrete details. While indefinite

pronouns are sometimes necessary, be specific as often as possible.

1. Incorrect: Rick vowed to never eat at the new Mario’s after coming down with food poisoning that his best friend had

recommended.

In this sentence, the pronoun is “that.” Did Mario’s best friend recommend food poisoning?

2. Correct: Rick got food poisoning at the new Mario’s that his best friend had recommended and vowed to never eat

there again.

Relative Pronouns

Students often struggle with relative pronouns. Students who proofread their essays carefully will catch pronoun reference errors

and make the appropriate revisions so that they are able to express themselves clearly. The relative pronouns are who, whom,

whose, which, and that.

1. Use who to refer to a person. Who is always used as the subject of a clause:

 Incorrect: The professor that was teaching the class was late on the first day of instruction.

 Correct: The professor, who was wearing Birkenstocks and jeans, was late on the first day of instruction.

2. First, whom refers to people. Next, remember that whom is always used as the object of a verb. Whom can be used in

statements or at the beginning of a questions. Whom often appears immediately after quantifiers and prepositions.

Examples of quantifiers are all of, both of, few of, many of, and several of; examples of prepositions are by, for, to, and

with. If you are not absolutely sure if you are using whom correctly, you should rewrite the sentence so that you can use

who instead. Never use whom just because you think it makes your writing sound more intelligent—use whom because

of the rules. Finally, whom sometimes sounds very formal, so consider rewriting the sentence to use who.

 Use whom with direct objects of verbs and prepositions: At the grocery store, I saw my old friend Ryan whom I

met in college many years ago.

This sentence contains “whom” because it is the direct object of “met.” Who did I meet? I met Ryan. Thus, Ry an in the object.

 Use whom with questions: To whom should I mail the letter?

In this question, the writer used “whom” because it is the direct object of the verb “mail.”

 Use whom after quantifiers: The professor held extra office hours for his students all of whom he helped one on

one.

This sentence contains “whom” because the word immediately follows the quantifier “all of” and because it is the direct object

the verb “helped.”

 Use whom after prepositions: I just finished reading a collection of poetry by Frank Gaspar with whom I recently

shared dinner.

In this last sentence, “whom” follows a preposition “with” and is the object of “shared,” which is a verb.

3. Whose can refer to people or things. It is the possessive form of who.

 Ernest Hemingway, whose awards include the Nobel Prize, wrote The Old Man and the Sea.

Here, “whose” refers to the noun “Ernest Hemingway,” who possesses “awards”; thus, “whose” is necessary.

 William Faulkner wrote long sentences, whose words lifted off the page.

This sentence shows how “whose” can refer to a thing, “sentences,” and indicate possession. The “sentence” possesses the

“words.”

4. Which is a relative pronoun that you can use to add extra information to a complete sentence. The extra information can

be removed from the sentence without changing its overall meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses appear in the middle of a

sentence or at the end of a sentence.

 During class, our instructor took us to the library, which was open until midnight, and showed us how to conduct

research.

In this sentence, “which was open until midnight” is extra information. The word which attaches it to the sentence. The reader

knows it is a nonrestrictive clause because it can be removed from the sentence while the main point remains intact: “During

class, our instructor took us to the library and showed us how to conduct research.” As a writer, you must know what you want to

say to the reader. In other words, if you simply want to add extra information to a sentence, which can help you do that.

 During class, our instructor showed us how to conduct research at the library, which was open until midnight.

In this example, the extra information is at the end of the sentence. Both structures are acceptable. On another note, writers need

to pay attention to the commas; in the previous example, commas were placed around the nonrestrictive clause. In the second

sentence, however, the comma goes before the nonrestrictive clause.

5. That adds essential information to a sentence. That is a relative pronoun you use to reference things or groups of

people.

 Christopher Buckley’s poems contain fluid lines that reflect clouds floating through the sky.

In this example, “that reflect clouds floating through the sky” contains essential information. If you removed it from the rest of

the sentence, the sentence would lose its main point. The point is to say that Buckley writes beautiful lines of poetry, not he just

writes lines. Again, you need to know what you are trying to say.

 Students who study in groups that burn long hours at the library usually earn better grades than individual

students who don’t even buy the books.

This sentence shows how “that” can follow a group of peop le but that “who” must follow individuals. When writers draw

attention to essential information with the word “that,” they do not place a comma before or around the information as they

would with nonrestrictive information that begins with which.

FOUR: Verb Errors

When students write essays, they must proofread very carefully to avoid verb errors. This section will explore four specific areas

in which writers struggle: helping verbs vs. declarative verbs, tense consistency, past participles, and making subjects and verbs

agree. If you proofread your essays and look closely at these four areas, you will help yourself avoid verb errors.

Helping Verbs vs. Declarative Verbs

Be, have, and do are helping verbs (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been; has, have, had; do, does, did). Can, could, may, might,

must, shall, should, will, would are helping verbs called modals. While writers must sometimes use helping verbs, they often

overuse them. Edit your sentences carefully so that your work is filled with declarative verbs rather than helping verbs.

Use declarative verbs to make a statement, a claim, an assertion, or to describe a specific action. Declarative verbs get straight to

the point. When writers fill their sentences with declarative verbs, they express their thoughts more clearly.

The following groups of words compare helping verbs (bold) to declarative verbs (bold and italics).

1. They are in the corner. vs. They sit in the corner.

2. He has a skateboard. vs. He owns a skateboard.

3. She did her essay. vs. She wrote her essay.

Here, the examples compare modals (bold) to declarative verbs (bold and italics):

1. He should find a job. vs, He needs to find a job.

2. I might go if I have time. vs. I want to go if I have time.

3. You may, if you would like, take the baby to the doctor. vs. Take the baby to the doctor.

Good writers know that if they toss helping verbs into their writing, their words will become vague. Students who do not

understand what they are writing about or who procrastinate tend to fill their compositions with fluff in the form helping verbs.

Instead, express what you want to say with carefully chosen declarative verbs.

1. Here is a group of sentences filled with helping verbs:

 In Jane Smiley’s novella Good Will, the “shell” is a concrete image. The bullet might be something that has the

reader’s senses. For example, Mr. Miller does something. He opens his hand where he has the “shell.” Tommy

should take it, so he will have it in his palm, and the reader may feel what the brass does to his skin.

When instructors receive pieces of writing like that, they wonder if the students fully understand what they read or are trying to

say in their work. What do the words might, be, has, does, should, will, and have mean? These vague words turn the entire group

of sentences into abstraction.

2. Here, however, the example has been revised. In the revision, the helping verbs have been changed to declarative verbs

or dropped altogether. As a result, the example possesses a more authoritative voice.

 In Jane Smiley’s novella Good Will, the “shell” represents a concrete image. The bullet might be something that

has appeals [to] the reader’s senses. For example, Mr. Miller does something. He opens his hand where he has

and reveals the “shell.” Tommy should take[s] it, so he will have and holds it in his palm, and the reader may

feel[s] what the brass does to his own skin.

3. And here is the final revision:

 In Jane Smiley’s novella Good Will, the “shell” represents a concrete image. The bullet appeals to the reader’s

senses. For example, Mr. Miller opens his hand and reveals the “shell.” Tommy takes it and holds it in his palm,

and the reader feels the brass pinch his own skin.

The final revision is much stronger even though it contains fewer words. Declarative verbs are quick jabs that punch hard.

Helping verbs are wide looping lunges that lack power.

Tense Consistency

When you write essays, you must pay special attention to the verb tense. You need to know the differences between past, present,

and future. In addition, you must keep verb tense as consistent as possible. Sometimes, you need to shift tense, but when the tense

shifts accidentally, the reader becomes confused. In general, an expository essay should be written in present tense. Some

instructors allow you to write in past tense. The most important thing to remember is that whether you write in present or past,

keep the tense as consistent as possible.

1. Here is a paragraph in which the verb tense shifts unnecessarily.

 The most important tone in “The Jacket” by Gary Soto is anger. Gary Soto wanted a jacket with “black

leather and silver studs,” but his mother had other ideas, which breaks his heart. Instead, his mother gave him a

coat that even the dog hated, so it leaves an “L-shaped tear” on the sleeve. Because his jacket was so hideous, all

the pretty girls run away from him like “loose flowers.” As the years passed, Soto grows more and more lonely

until all he sees in the sky were the dull “faces of clouds.”

In this paragraph, the tense constantly shifts from present to past tense. The first sentence places the paragraph in the present

tense with “is”; the second sentence, however, swings the paragraph into the past with the verb “wanted.” From that point on, the

student has lost control of the paragraph.

2. Here is the previous paragraph. The paragraph now demonstrates consistent verb tense because the entire paragraph is

in present tense.

 The most important tone in “The Jacket” by Gary Soto is anger. Gary Soto wants a jacket with “black leather

and silver studs,” but his mother has other ideas, which breaks his heart. Instead, his mother gives him a coat that

even the dog hates, so it leaves an “L-shaped tear” on the sleeve. Because his jacket is so hideous, all the pretty

girls run away from him like “loose flowers.” As the years pass, Soto grows more and more lonely until all he

sees in the sky are the dull “faces of clouds.”

To write an essay with consistent verb tense, proofread carefully. If you read your essay out loud and pay particular attention to

the verbs, you will hear unnecessary verb tense shifts and be able to edit your work more effectively.

Past Participles

Verbs possess (among other forms) an infinitive, a simple past tense, and a past participle form. Students usually don’t have

trouble navigating their way between the different tenses when the verbs follow basic conjugation rules, such as walk, walked,

have walked (or has walked). Sometimes, however, the simple past and the past participle refuse to follow the rules you rely on

for good writing; these are called irregular verbs, such as take, took, and taken. Specifically, you might struggle with the past

participle for two reasons: you do not know the past participle form, or you do not add the correct modal verb.

1. To conjugate the past participle of irregular verbs, you must simply know the past participle forms. Below is a list of

irregular verbs. This list focuses on irregular verbs that completely change forms between the simple past and the past

participle. In other words, instead of the verb being as simple as talk, talked, and have talked, the verb must be

conjugated like this: take, took, have taken.

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

 arise arose arisen

 awake awoke awoken

 be was/ were been

 bear bore borne

 beat beat beaten

 become became become

 begin began begun

 bet bet/ betted bet

 bite bit bitten

 blow blew blown

 break broke broken

 burn burnt/ burned burnt/ burned

 choose chose chosen

 come came come

 dive dove dived

 do did done

 draw drew drawn

 dream dreamt/ dreamed dreamt/ dreamed

 drink drank drunk

 drive drove driven

 eat ate eaten

 fall fell fallen

 fly flew flown

 forbid forbade forbidden

 forget forgot forgotten

 forego /forgo forewent foregone

 forgive forgave forgiven

 forsake forsook forsaken

 freeze froze frozen

 get got gotten

 give gave given

 go went gone

 hide hid hidden

 know knew known

 leap leapt/ leaped leapt/ leaped

 lie lay lain

 light lit/ lighted lit/ lighted

 mistake mistook mistaken

 mow mowed mowed/mown

 overcome overcame overcome

 overdo overdid overdone

 overtake overtook overtaken

 overthrow overthrew overthrown

 prove proved proved/proven

 ride rode ridden

 ring rang rung

 rise rose risen

 run ran run

 saw sawed sawn /sawed

 see saw seen

 sew sewed sewed

 shake shook shaken

 shear sheared sheared/ shorn

 show showed shown

 shrink shrank shrunk

 sing sang sung

 sink sank sunk

 sow sowed sown /sowed

 speak spoke spoken

 speed sped/ speeded sped/ speeded

 spill spilt/ spilled spilt/ spilled

 spring sprang sprung

 steal stole stolen

 stink stank stunk

 stride strode stridden

 strive strove striven

 swear swore sworn

 swell swelled swelled/ swollen

 swim swam swum

 take took taken

 tear tore torn

 throw threw thrown

 tread trod trodden

 wake woke/ waked woken/ waked

 weave wove/ weaved woven/ weaved

 wed wedded/ wed wedded/ wed

 withdraw withdrew withdrawn

 write wrote written

Memorizing that list of irregular verbs will help you conjugate verbs fluidly as you write. Verbs that are not conjugated correctly

trip and confuse the reader. Even after memorizing this list, you might struggle with the past participle for different reasons.

1. You might confuse the simple past with past participle.

 Incorrect use of past participle: She had liked playing softball in school. (Just use simple past She liked playing

softball in school.)

 Incorrect use of past participle: Rick and Ryan had went to the gym. (Just use simple past Rick and Ryan went

to the gym.)

2. You might not use the past participle when it’s needed. The past participle is needed to form the present perfect tense

(have, has + past participle); to form the past perfect tense (had + past participle); or to form the future perfect tense

(will + have + past participle). Here are descriptions of each of those tenses followed by examples. The definitions and

examples are from Hacker’s A pocket Style Manual, seventh edition (49):

 Present perfect tense expresses actions that began in the past and continue in the present or actions that happened

at an unspecific time in the past: She has not spoken of her grandmother in a long time.

 Past perfect tense expresses an action that began or occurred before another time in the past: By the time Hakan

was fifteen, he had learned to drive.

 Future perfect tense expresses actions that will be completed before or at a specific future time: By the time I

graduate, I will have taken film study classes.

3. You might leave out helping verbs (have, had, has, and will) when you are trying to use the present perfect, the past

perfect, or the future perfect. In those cases, the sentences will look like this:

 Incorrect: She not spoken of her grandmother in a long time.

 Incorrect: By the time Hakan was fifteen, he learned to drive.

 Incorrect: By the time I graduate, I have taken film study classes.

Fortunately, by learning the rules of grammar, you will know what to look for when you proofread your work.

Subject Verb Agreement

Students often struggle with subject-verb agreement. To master subject-verb agreement, remember the golden rule:

1. Singular subjects need singular verbs whereas plural subjects need plural verbs.

 Incorrect: My dog eat roasted chicken every night.

 Correct: My dog eats roasted chicken every night.

 Incorrect: The leaves trembles against the wind.

 Correct: The leaves tremble against the wind.

Unfortunately, the English language is tricky. In his English 1A lecture notes, Reedley College English instructor David Borofka

explores four situations that often lead to subject-verb agreement errors.

2. Third-person singular and the present tense:

 Incorrect: The carnivore eat many other animals.

 Correct: The carnivore eats many other animals.

 Incorrect: In the final chapter, Nick Carraway leave New York, a wiser man.

 Correct: In the final chapter, Nick Carraway leaves New York, a wiser man.

3. The verb “to be”:

 Incorrect: You is coming down the home stretch.

 Correct: You are coming down the home stretch.

 Incorrect: They be hearing voices.

 Correct: They are hearing voices.

4. Other word groups between subject and verb:

 Incorrect: Lack of enthusiasm for all tests, quizzes, papers, and reading assignments constitute a flaw of

character.

 Correct: Lack of enthusiasm for all tests, quizzes, papers, and reading assignments constitutes a flaw of

character.

 Incorrect: The player, who voted no on the new contract language and restrictions, were not allowed to play in

last night’s contest.

 Correct: The player, who voted no on the new contract language and restrictions, was not allowed to play in last

night’s contest.

5. Indefinite pronouns (such as one, each, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, no

one, or nobody) are considered singular no matter what nouns might be used in intervening clauses or phrases:

 Incorrect: Each of the dancers have a particular pre-dance routine.

 Correct: Each of the dancers has a particular pre-dance routine.

In addition to the areas presented by Mr. Borofka, students struggle with other situations when writing, which also lead to

subject-verb agreement errors. The following situations are examined in Hacker’s A Pocket Style Manual, seventh edition (23-

25).

1. Compound subjects joined with and are nearly always plural:

 Incorrect: Bleach and ammonia creates a toxic gas when mixed.

 Correct: Bleach and ammonia create a toxic gas when mixed.

2. With compound subjects joined with or or nor, make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb:

 Incorrect: If an infant or a child are having difficulty breathing, seek medical attention immediately.

 Correct: If an infant or a child is having difficulty breathing, seek medical attention immediately.

3. Collective nouns, such as jury, committee, audience, crowd, class, family, and couple name a group. In American,

English, collective nouns are usually treated as singular; they emphasize the group as a unit.

 Incorrect: The board of trustees meet in Denver twice a year.

 Correct: The board of trustees meets in Denver twice a year.

4. Plural form, singular meaning: words, such as athletics, economics, mathematics, physics, politics, statistics, measles,

and news are usually singular, despite their plural forms.

 Incorrect: Politics are among my mother’s favorite pastimes.

 Correct: Politics is among my mother’s favorite pastimes.

Finally, “Making Subjects and Verbs Agree” offers these additional rules:

1. Nouns, such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)

 Incorrect: These scissors is dull.

 Correct: These scissors are dull.

 Incorrect: Those trousers is made of wool.

 Correct: Those trousers are made of wool.

2. In sentences beginning with “there is” or “there are,” the subject follows the verb. Since “there” is not the subject, the

verb agrees with what follows.

 Correct: There are many questions.

 Correct: There is a question.

 If a student can be mindful of these rules while writing and proofreading their work, he will compose sentences that

reflect good grammar, especially accurate subject-verb agreement. For additional information on subject-verb

agreement, consult Diana Hacker’s A Pocket Style Manual (7th edition) and the online grammar book the Purdue

Online Writing Lab.

CHAPTER FOUR: Mechanics

I. Capitalization

II. Hyphens

III. Italics and Underlining

IV. Numbers

V. Titles of Works

ONE: Capitalization

Here are a few important guidelines that will show you which words need to be capitalized and, as importantly, which words do

not need to be capitalized. Use these guidelines to help you write your essays.

1. In A Pocket Style Manual, Diana Hacker says, “Capitalize names of deities, religions, religious followers, and sacred

texts; words of family relationships used as names; particular places; nationalities and their languages, races, and tribes;

educational institutions, departments, and particular courses; government departments, organizations, and political

parties; historical movements, periods, events, and documents; and trade names” (79). In addition, she says to

capitalize, “Months, holidays, and days of the week” (79) and finally, “Capitalize a title when used as part of a proper

noun but usually not when used alone” (80). Finally, don’t forget to capitalize the first word of a sentence (students are

often in the habit of overlooking this rule because of social media), and don’t forget to capitalize abbreviations. Here

are several examples of correct capitalization and incorrect capitalization.

 Correct: During dinner, Uncle Danny talked about World War II.

 Incorrect: During dinner, my uncle Danny talked about World War II.

 Correct: We all pitched in and bought Dad a gift.

 Incorrect: His dad came home late from work.

 Correct: I talked to Dr. Nguyen after he treated Mom.

 Incorrect: I talked to the Doctor after he treated our Mom.

 Correct: I’m taking Sociology 1 and Psychology 2 this semester.

 Incorrect: I’m taking Sociology and Psychology this semester.

 Correct: We will wait for you in front of the PE Building.

 Incorrect: We’ll wait for you at the pe building

 Correct: On Monday, I stopped at the Political Science Department because I needed a signature, but the office

was filled with the Republican Club because they needed to see their advisor before Christmas break, so I sat

down and read my Sports Illustrated while I waited my turn.

 Incorrect: On Monday, I stopped at the Department because I needed a signature, but the office was filled with

students from a Club because they needed to see their advisor before the holiday, so I sat down and read my

Magazine while I waited my turn.

2. Also, capitalize titles of works (such as books, movies, magazines and academic journal articles). Do not automatically

capitalize all the words in a title. Capitalize major words, such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverb, and adjectives. Do

not capitalize minor words, such as articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions. Always capitalize the first and

last word of a title.

 Correct: The title of the book is I Know What I Want to Say, but I Don’t Know How to Say It.

 Correct: The title of the movie is A Bridge Too Far.

 Incorrect: We read a short story titled “a Very Old Man With Enormous Wings.” (“A” needs to be capitalized

because it is the first word of the title, and “with” should not be capitalized since it is a preposition).

TWO: Hyphens

Determining whether or not to use hyphens to join words can be very confusing because authoritative sources, such as

dictionaries, will often offer contradicting information. Following are three rules that will help you understand when your

sentences need a hyphen. If these rules do not help you, however, look up the words you are considering hyphenating in a

college-level dictionary. If the words are not joined with a hyphen in the dictionary, don’t use a hyphen.

1. If you are writing, reach the end of the line, and need to break a word apart to continue on the next line, break the word

along one of the syllables and use a hyphen to show the word continues on the next line. This rule will apply to writing

by hand more often than when you are using a computer because your word processor adjusts the text for you.

 I need to stop at the grocery store and buy apples, walnuts, grapes, and pe-

cans.

2. Use the hyphen with compound words. Remember, check a dictionary whenever you are not sure. If a hyphen isn’t

used in the dictionary, do not use it in your essay.

 My mother-in-law visited us after our daughter was born; her visit helped our overall well-being.

3. Use the hyphen to join words working together as an adjective.

 Well-rested after sleeping for eight hours, I aced my final exam.

If the noun comes first, you do not need the hyphen: I aced my final exam because (N) I felt so well rested. (“I” comes

before “well rested,” so the hyphen is not needed).

4. Use the hyphen to join numbers twenty -one through ninety-nine.

 Last week, I worked ninety-nine hours at the hospital.

THREE: Italics and Underlining

If you are typing your essay, use italics, but if you are writing an essay by hand, use underlining. Either way, consider the same

set of rules when determining whether or not titles of works or words need to be identified through italics or underlining. (Other

types of works, articles, essays, poems, short stories, and songs, are placed in quotation marks).

1. Use italics to identify the following titles of works:

 academic journals and reviews

 books

 computer software (MLA)

 databases (MLA)

 films

 long poems

 magazines

 musical compositions and albums

 newspapers

 plays

 treatises

radio programs

 television shows

 video games

 visual art

 web sites (MLA)

 Do not use italics with the Bible; books in the Bible, legal documents, or to indicate the titles of your own essays.

2. Use italics to identify foreign words in an English sentence.

 While we were in Madrid, rain began pouring from the sky, so we ran into the biblioteca and ran our fingers along

the spines of the books.

Do not italicize foreign words that have become part of the English language. If a foreign word is in a good college-level English

dictionary, you do not need to italicize it.

3. Use italics to emphasize an important point.

 For my final grammar exam, I studied harder than I ever have in my life.

Use italics to emphasize an important point sparingly; otherwise, italics will not be effective.

4. Use italics to identify letters as letters, numbers as numbers, and words as words.

 When I speak Spanish, I struggle with the R’s. For example, the word arriba gives me all kinds of grief.

In this case, the word arriba is italicized to indicate a foreign word and to indicate a word used as a word.

FOUR: Numbers

To write a good essay, you must pay attention to detail. Students will often spell out numbers inconsistently, but by following

these rules, your essay will be much more polished.

1. According to “Writing Numbers,” “spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for

other numbers.”

 We would like to buy a house with four rooms and 3500 square feet.

2. In the following cases, use numbers rather than spelling them out:

 dates: His birthday is November 11, 1971.

 years: During the 1930s and early 40s, the Depression ravaged much of the country.

 time: I’ll see you at 1:30pm.

 addresses: The White House is located at 600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20500

 identification: My creative writing class is in HUM 65.

 decimals, percentages, fractions, statistics, monetary amounts: In my English 1A class, 50% of my grade is based

on the term paper.

 page and division of books and plays: In my term paper, I quoted chapter 3, page 44.

 scores: The Dodgers beat the Giants 10-1.

 surveys: According the survey, 7/10 students procrastinate.

3. If a number must appear at the beginning of a sentence, write out the number or rewrite the sentence so the number

falls elsewhere in the sentence.

 One-hundred and fifty-six thousand Allied troops stormed Normandy on D-Day.

 On D-Day, 156,000 Allied troops stormed Normandy.

FIVE: Titles of Works

Title of works are indicated in one of three ways: underlining (for handwritten material), italics (typing), and quotation marks

(handwritten or typing).

1. Use italics and underlining to identify the following titles of works:

 academic journals and reviews

 books

 computer software (MLA)

 databases (MLA)

 films

 long poems

 magazines

 musical compositions and albums

 newspapers

 pamphlets

 plays

 radio programs

 television shows

 treatises

 video games

 visual art

 web sites (MLA)

 Do not use italics with the Bible; books in the Bible, legal documents, or to indicate the titles of your own essays.

2. Use quotation marks to identify the titles of these types of works:

 articles, essays, poems, short stories, and songs

 Note, if you do not see a type of work that you are using in an essay, consult the appropriate the MLA style manual for

additional information.

CHAPTER FIVE: Maintaining an Academic Voice

I. Avoid Clichés

II. Avoid Slang

III. Avoid Social Medial Jargon

IV. Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View

V. Proper Academic Voice

As a college-level writer, you must know how to maintain an academic voice throughout your essay . Part of maintaining an

academic voice is knowing what not to do. For example, avoid using clichés, slang, social media jargon, and keep a consistent

point of view. Maintaining an academic voice, however, is not always easy because clichés, slang, and social media jargon have

become common practice. To avoid these pitfalls of writing, pay attention to what you are writing, proofread carefully, and, as

importantly, read good literature. Reading literature will help you recognize the difference between good writing and poor

writing.

ONE: Avoid Clichés

A cliché is a phrase that has been used over and over by people to express their thoughts and feelings. Professional athletes use

clichés all the time during post-game interviews. For example, you might here this string of clichés taped together in a single

interview:

1. “I’m just happy to be here. I have to take it one game at a time and give it 100%. I just want to be a team player

because there is no “I” in team, and defense wins championships.”

In his online column “The Writer’s Dig,” which he writes for Writer’s Digest, Brian Klems offers a list of clichés he sees way to

often in the works of people hoping to be published:

1. Avoid it like the plague

2. If only walls could talk

3. Think outside the box

4. But at the end of the day

5. Plenty of fish in the sea

6. Every dog has its day

7. Like a kid in a candy store

 Avoid these clichés like the plague and think outside the box because at the end of the day you want to be a good writer

who knows how to maintain an academic voice. Students often use clichés when they don’t complete their reading

assignments and then procrastinate after receiving their writing prompt for a new essay. As a result, they must use

clichés to help themselves put something on paper.

TWO: Avoid Slang

While students often use slang with each other, they should not use it when they write essays. Students use slang in casual

conversation so often it slips into their work and they don’t realize it. Here is an example of the kinds of conversations students

often have outside the classroom:

John: Wassup, Dude, y ’all read?

Steve: Nah, I took out my kid’s old lady.

John: Sweet.

Steve: Whatta ‘bout you?

John: Nah. Jus’ kicked it with my homeboys.

Steve: For sure.

John: Fact, I’m thinkin’ ‘bout rollin’ with them right now and dropin’ school.

Steve: What’s stoppin’ you?

John: I live in my ‘rents crib. If I drop, they’ll kick me out.

Steve: That’s wack.

If you use poor diction, your voice will lack authority, which effects the overall quality of your work. In How Stuff Works:

Culture, 53 Slang Terms by Decade, the writers say these slang terms have become part of American vernacular:

1. Diss: show disrespect

2. Get jiggy: dance; flirt

3. Homey/Homeboy: a friend or buddy

4. My bad: my mistake

5. Phat: cool or hip; highly attractive; hot

6. Wassup?: What’s up?, how are you?

7. Word: Yes; I agree

8. Barney Bag: a gigantic purse

9. Newbie: a newcomer; someone who is inexperienced

10. Peeps: friends; people

11. Rents: parents

12. Sweet: beyond cool

 Remember, do not use slang in your essays. You want your essays to sound composed, not like the conversations you

hear in the corridors of your school.

THREE: Avoid Social Media Jargon

This is the type of language students use to communicate on Facebook and Twitter or when texting and blogging and so on. Here

is an example of two friends texting each other. Notice how both of them use social media jargon to communicate. Also, note

how Megan’s lack of capitalization and punctuation makes her texting more difficult to understand than Demi who follows the

basic rules of punctuation and mechanics.

Megan: at the club I was bein silly when i gave that boy the signal i’m watchin u don’t think he understood

Demi: 2 bad. Glad your sis went with us. Btw, I liked her. She’s nice

Megan: lol yeah she can be cool when she wants 2 she said she liked you 2

Demi: Lol. That’s gr8. I’m glad

Megan: u wanna go out dancin next week r u free i am

Demi: Prolly

Megan: GR8CUL8R

Demi: K

MacMillan Dictionary Online lists the following abbreviations, which represent the type of social media jargon that should not be

used to compose thoughts in an essay:

1. 2: to or too

2. 4: for

3. 8: “ate” or “-eat”

4. B: be

5. BTW: by the way

6. C: see

7. FWIW: for what it’s worth

8. GR8: great

9. HTH: hope that helps

10. IMHO: in my humble opinion

11. L8R: later

12. LOL: laughing out loud

13. LOL: lots of love

14. MYOB: mind your own business

15. NE: any

16. OTOH: on the other hand

17. PLS: please

18. PROLLY: probably

19. R: are

20. ROFL: roll(ing) on the floor laughing

21. SRY: sorry

22. SWALK: sealed with a loving kiss

23. THNQ: thank you

24. U: you

Unfortunately, students use this language in their work without realizing this jargon is inappropriate because essays require an

academic voice. In addition, they allow other bad habits to take over, such as not following the rules of basic punctuation and

mechanics.

FOUR: Avoid Confusing Shifts in Points of View

Point of view refers to the narrator’s perspective in a piece of writing. Point of view is divided into three categories: first person

point of view (told from the I perspective); second person point of view (told from the you perspective); and third person point of

view (told from the he/ she perspective).

1. Here is a sentence written from a consistent third person point of view: Frederick Douglass learned to read and write

despite the obstacles he faced.

In this case Frederick Douglass and he maintain the sentence’s third person point of view.

2. Here is the same sentence, but the point of view shifts: Frederick Douglass learned to read and write despite the

obstacles he faced. You could see how hard he worked. I think he was extremely smart.

In this sentence, the point of view shifts: it goes from Frederick Douglass and he to You and I. These confusing shifts will

distract the reader, and as a result, the sentence does not contain an academic voice.

FIVE: Proper Academic Voice

So then what is an example of a piece of writing that contains an academic voice?

1. For a composition course, Instructor Carey Karle says, “The words, the language, depends on the readings we are

doing. For example, when I use an article by Earl Shorris on poverty and education, I exp ect to see specific key terms:

reflection, politics, surround of force. When writing a section on comparisons, I expect to see terms such as similar,

similarity, difference, and differences. When my students are working on an essay by Richard Rodriguez, I expect to

see power, public identity, and education. I want to see reflection and analysis—critical thinking.”

2. And instructor Kate Watts says, “My 1B focuses on intertextuality. If we are beginning with Mrs. Dalloway, this will

be followed by Michael Cunningham’s The Hours, and then we will conclude the unit with the film version of The

Hours. Another example would be King Lear and Jane Smiley’s A Thousand Acres and of course the film version. With

the exception of The Tempest (and it depends on a contemporary account of a shipwreck), all of Shakespeare’s plays

borrow heavily from other texts. We might also read Chekhov’s “The Lady with the Pet Dog” reprised by Joyce Carol

Oates in the 70s as well as Hamlet and Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. In a class like this, I

want the students to use words such as narrative, metaphor, setting, persona, representation, point of view, genre,

speaker, character, and literary theory to name just a few.”

3. Or consider for a moment this sentence from the Declaration of Independence, and then ask yourself, “What kind of

writer do I want to be?”: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed

by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That

to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the

governed, —That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to

alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such p rinciples and organizing its

powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

CHAPTER SIX: The Research Process and Avoiding Plagiarism

I. Sources

II. Evaluate Your Sources

III. Reedley College Database

IV. Staying Organized

V. Plagiarism

ONE: Sources

There are a variety of sources you can use to support a research paper. If your research material originates from authoritative

sources, you will do a much better job supporting your thesis than students who fill their works cited pages with Wiki. Your

research material may include:

1. Traditional library/ print sources, such as books, magazines/ journals, reference works, and periodical indexes.

2. Interviews and surveys.

3. Electronic sources.

4. Online sources.

 As you look for material, remember that not all secondary sources are equally valid or worthy of your attention.

TWO: Evaluate Your Sources

You must evaluate your sources based on a wide range of criteria. Evaluating your sources based on several factors will help

insure that your work is written and supported with authority.

1. Type of source

2. Expertise of the author, group, site

3. Recency

4. Objectivity

 Remember, not all Internet-based material is factual nor true.

THREE: Reedley College Database

Fortunately, the Reedley College Library subscribes to online databases that contain articles with credible work. These articles

may be useful when you are conducting research for a term paper:

1. EBSCOHost,

2. Gale Artemis

3. J-STOR

FOUR: Staying Organized

As you conduct research, keep copies of everything that you use in your work. If you paraphrase an article, keep it. If you use a

direct quotation, keep it. A paraphrase is the idea of a writer recast in your own words. A direct quotation refers to the exact

words of a writer or speaker placed in quotation marks and used in your own essay. As you save copies of all your research, make

sure you have all the relevant citation information so that you can use it to write a works cited page and/or annotated

bibliography. Keep yourself organized. If you have a mass of paper all over your desk, you will have a difficult time pulling

together all your resources for the works cited and/or annotated bibliography. However, if you are organized and thorough, you

will be less likely to commit plagiarism.

FIVE: Plagiarism

Plagiarism refers to the intentional or unintentional misuse of primary or secondary sources. A primary source, is a text about

which you are writing. A secondary source is a text written about a primary source. An example of unintentional plagiarism is

when a student paraphrases a primary source and forgets to include a citation. An example of intentional plagiarism is when a

student finds a secondary source they really like and drop it into their essay without any sort citation and try and claim it as their

own writing. Professors spot plagiarism easily for a variety of reasons, and more often than not, the plagiarist will find himself

drowning in a variety of consequences. Finally, a few final words about plagiarism:

1. Plagiarism can range from the entirely unintentional to the deliberate and volitional.

2. Types of plagiarism include the following…

 Copying another writer’s paper

 Copying the structure of another writer’s work

 Copying the language (paragraph, sentence, specific words) of another writer without benefit of quotation marks

 Copying another writer’s idea or language without attribution

These are all serious issues and constitute a breach of the academic contract. Don’t do it! Instead, research carefully and use the

MLA guidelines to help you properly attribute your work.

CHAPTER SEVEN: MLA Guidelines

I. How to Format an Essay According to the MLA Guidelines

II. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction

III. How to Summarize

IV. How to Paraphrase

V. How to Summarize and Paraphrase—Final Thoughts

VI. How to Use Signal Phrases and Parenthetical Citations with the Author Named in a Signal Phrase Method for In-text

Citations

VII. How to Format Short and Long Quotations of Prose and Poetry

VIII. How to use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics

IX. How to Write a Works Cited Page and Sample Works Cited Page

X. How to Write an Annotated Bibliography and Sample Annotated Bibliography

XI. Common Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies

ONE: How to Format an Essay According to the MLA Guidelines

Many thanks to Reedley College English instructor Carey Karle for this list.

All essays must be formatted according to Modern Language Association guidelines. Any paper that is not correctly formatted as

noted may receive no higher than a “C” on their essay.

 Font set for TIMES NEW ROMAN 12

 Line spacing set for DOUBLE

o Entire essay is DOUBLE line spaced only—no more and no less ANYWHERE

 There is one exception to this rule. If you include an epigraph, insert the epigraph after your title.

Include an extra double space before and after the epigraph. Thus, you will hit return twice after the

title and then hit return twice after the epigraph. Then, you will be ready to continue your essay

with your thesis sentence.

o In the PARAGRAPH menu, set the SPACING BEFORE and AFTER for ZERO

 Margins are set for one inch (1”) top and bottom, left and right.

 Page numbers have been INSERTED (not typed) into the upper right hand corner beginning with page one.

 Student’s last name appears before the page number—AND there is a space between the name and page number

 On page one ONLY, in the top left hand corner of the page, double line spaced, the following appears

o Student’s Name

o Instructor Dominguez

o Course

o Due Date for Essay

 Next, the essay has an appropriate title, which is centered—USING the computer’s function to center (not tabbed or

spaced into the center)

 The first line of each paragraph is indented using the tab function AND the tab is set for 0.5” (one half inch)

 The work(s) cited page/annotated bibliography is the last page of the essay —INSERT NEW PAGE

o Works Cited utilizes a hanging indent as needed

o Works Cited entries are alphabetized by the author’s last name

o Works Cited entries are formatted correctly

TWO: How to Summarize and Paraphrase—an Introduction

Summaries, paraphrases, and direct quotations give you three ways to incorporate sources into your essay. Using all three

methods of incorporation will keep you from overusing direct quotations. When students don’t know what to write about in their

essays, they will insert long quotations just to make the page count. But instructors notice this tactic and will usually give a

student a low grade for poor effort. Instead, you should use all three methods to support your thesis with well-written supportive

material. As you write your essay, think of the direct quotation as the focus of your critical thinking. Thus, use summaries and

paraphrases to build up to the direct quotation. This section of the handbook will focus on summarizing and paraphrasing.

Note: The examples below are based on the following passage. Below the passage, you will find the appropriate citation.

“After dinner each night, the family gathered to practice ‘our’ English. (It was still then íngles, a language foreign to us, so we

felt drawn as strangers to it). Laughing we would try to define words we could not pronounce. We played with strange English

sounds, often over-anglicizing our pronunciations. And we filled the smiling gaps of our sentences with familiar Spanish sounds”

(20).

Rodriguez, Richard. Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez. New York: Bantam, 2004. Print.

THREE: How to Summarize

A summary briefly describes a specific passage and attributes the summary referring to the original source with a signal phrase

and the appropriate page number. .

1. Rodriguez said his family tried to improve their English around the kitchen table. When they struggled with their new

language, they did their best to figure out the meaning of the words (20).

This summary briefly covers the passage’s main points without going into detail. The summary does not contain the author’s

words; it contains fresh diction and syntax to help avoid plagiarism. Additionally, it includes the page number in parenthesis

before the period.

2. After eating each evening, the family gathered to speak English. And they filled the smiling holes of their sentences

with common Spanish noises.

This passage is poor summarizing. First, it simply touches on the beginning and the ending of t he passage. Second, it copies

several of Rodriguez’s words and does not use fresh syntax. If you look at the passage carefully, you’ll see that the person who

wrote this passage simply changed a word here and there. Third, the person did not include the author’s name and the appropriate

page number. Thus, this passage could be considered plagiarism.

FOUR: How to Paraphrase

A paraphrase describes a specific passage with greater detail. When writing a paraphrase, you still need to use your own diction

and syntax as much as possible. Also, make sure you introduce the material with the author’s name and conclude the paraphrase

with the appropriate page number. By following these guidelines, you will incorporate research into your essay, support your

thesis, and avoid plagiarism.

1. Rodriguez said he and his family spent the evenings improving their English. English was mysterious to them, so they

wanted to understand it better. Even when they struggled, they stayed positive, discussed what words meant, and over

accentuated the syllables. But sometimes, they returned to the comfort and safety of Spanish (20).

This passage shows excellent paraphrasing. It goes into greater detail than a summary, uses fresh diction and syntax, and includes

the page number inside a set of parenthesis.

2. Following dinner each evening, the family gathered to repeat English. (still íngles, a language stranger to us, so they

felt dragged). Laughing they would attempt to define words they did not pronounce. They roughed with strange English

snorts, often over-anglicizing their pronouncements. And they filled the grinning gaps of phrases with friendship

Spanish noises.

This example represents poor paraphrasing. First, it contains several of the exact same words and phrases. The person who wrote

it did not change the syntax. Third, when the writer did change the words, the sentences didn’t make sense because the student is

not using the correct diction. Finally, the student did not include the author’s name and page number. This paraphrase represents

poor writing and plagiarism.

FIVE: How to Summarize and Paraphrase—Final Thoughts

1. Sometimes, you have to use the same words as the author. For example, a dog is a dog. You shouldn’t say “a furry

creature with a wagging tail and a moist noise.” Just say dog, which is a common noun.

2. If you need to use one of the author’s words in your summaries or paraphrases and the word is not a common noun,

place that word in quotation marks. For example, if you were writing a paraphrase and wanted to use “smiling gaps”

because you felt there was just no other way to express it, place the word/ words/ or phrases in quotation marks. But do

this sparingly. Use your own diction and syntax as much as possible.

3. When you change the diction and syntax, make sure you use the right words. If you use the wrong words, you may

change the author’s intended meaning, or your sentences will not make sense.

4. When you change the syntax, make sure the sentence still flows naturally.

5. Remember, to write good summaries and paraphrases, you must understand the original text 100%. Use a dictionary if

you don’t understand one word or a thousand words.

6. Sit. Read. And think.

7. Writing successful summaries and paraphrases will help you avoid two pitfalls: filling your essays with junk and

committing plagiarism.

8. Before writing your summaries and paraphrases, close the original text and toss it to the other side of your room. Then,

write from memory. Afterwards, compare your summaries and paraphrases to the original text to make sure you have

not committed plagiarism by accidentally using the author’s diction and syntax.

9. Finally, read your summaries and paraphrases out loud. If the little voice inside your head says, “I don’t think it sounds

right,” or “I think you are plagiarizing because your aren’t using your own diction or syntax,” revise your work until

the little voice leaves the room.

SIX: How to Use Signal Phrases and Parenthetical Citations with the Author Named in a Signal Phrase Method for In-text

Citations

In addition to summarizing and paraphrasing a source to support your essay’s thesis, you can use direct quotations. To presen t a

reader with a direct quotation, you must follow a series of rules from the Modern Language Association guidelines. By following

these guidelines, your essay will flow smoothly, which means you will weave your direct quotations seamlessly into your text. In

addition, your reader will be able to refer to your works cited or annotated bibliography to find out more information about y our

sources. Thus, following the MLA guidelines will give your voice authority.

Introduce a direct quotation using a signal phrase. A signal phrase is usually a fragment that contains up to three parts: the name

of the author or speaker, a signal word, and sometimes a punctuation mark. There are a variety of possible signal words, such as

“stated,” “said,” “believed,” and “expressed.” While the signal phrase and parenthetical information may have to change based

on different criteria, a typical direct quotation that has been introduced with a signal phrase followed by a parenthetical citation

looks like this:

Douglass said, “I finally succeeded in learning how to write” (111).

In this example, you can see how nothing is included inside the parentheses but the page number. This citation method is very

effective because it is simple, clear, and informative. There are, of course, exceptions to this basic method. Here are several

common rules for signal phrases and, if applicable, additional rules for the parenthetical citation.

1. The most common signal phrase includes the author’s last name, a signal word, and a comma. This method is

acceptable for a wide range of resources—both print and web-based—that have one author, such as books, magazine

articles, newspaper articles, academic journals, online articles, etc. This is also useful for works by editors and

translators: simply put the name of the work’s creator in the signal phrase. This method works well for interviews as

well: depending on who you want to emphasize, place the interviewer or interviewee in the signal phrase:

 Douglass said,

2. If a source lists no author, use the title of the work to introduce the quotation. The title must match the title in your

works cited page/ annotated bibliography for easy reference. You may use a shortened version of the title as long as the

reader can easily find the complete citation on the list of works cited/ annotated bibliography.

 The article “Graduating from College Takes Courage” states,

 The article “Graduating from College” states,

3. If you end your signal phrase with the word that, the signal phrase flows smoothly into the direct quotation and a

comma is not necessary. This method is acceptable for a wide range of resources—both print and web-based—that

have one author, such as books, magazine articles, newspaper articles, academic journals, online articles, etc. This is

also useful for works by editors and translators: simply put the name work’s creator in the signal phrase. This method

works well for interviews as well: depending on who you want to emphasize, place the interviewer or interviewee in

the signal phrase:

 Douglass said that

4. You may also introduce a direct quotation with an independent clause . The independent clause must contain the name

of the speaker, a signal word, and be followed by a colon. This method is acceptable for a wide range of resources—

both print and web-based—that have one author, such as books, magazine articles, newspaper articles, academic

journals, online articles, etc. This is also useful for works by editors and translators: simply put the name work’s creator

in the signal phrase. This method works well for interview as well: depending on who you want to emphasize, place the

interviewer or interviewee in the signal phrase.

 Douglass said staring at the sailboats in the bay made him long for freedom:

 Notice how the signal phrase still contains a signal word (“said”).

5. If a source contains three or fewer authors, list the last name of all three authors in your signal phrase. List last names

only. List them in the same order they appear in your works cited/ annotated bibliography:

 LaSalle and Garza stated that

6. If a source contains more than three authors, use the first author listed by the source. Follow the author’s name with

“et al.” or list all the authors. (Et al. stands for “and others”):

 Dominguez et al. stated,

 Dominguez, LaSalle, Garza, and Borofka stated,

7. When using an anthology, use the name of the author of the work, not the name of the anthology’s editor:

 In his poem “My California,” Lee describe his perfect place:

8. For a play, use the name of the author or the name of the speaker:

 Horatio says,

 For the parenthetical citation, include information such as the act, scene, and line instead of the page number. Cite the

information in that order. Place periods between the numbers. If the information is not included, simply omit it.

 Horatio says, “By heaven I charge thee, speak” (1.1.48).

9. For a sacred text such as the Bible, use the name of the author or speaker; if the name of the author or speaker is not

given, use the name of the chapter. Names of chapters from sacred texts do not need to be in italics, underlined, or

placed in quotation marks:

 Matthew states that

 In Corinthians, the Bible states,

 For the parenthetical citation, include the version you are using, book, verse, and chapter, if possible, or similar

information (do not include the page number):

 Matthew states that “Abraham became the father of Isaac” (New American Bible St. Joseph Edition, Matthew 1:2).

 Notice how New American Bible St. Joseph Edition is placed in italics. Italics are used because the citation is naming

an edition. But when you simply say “the Bible,” do not use italics.

10. For an indirect source (source quoted within a source), use the name of the author whose work is being quoted (the

secondary source):

 LaSalle sated, “John Ford is the finest director ever” (qtd. in Garza 3).

 For the parenthetical citation, “qtd. in” is included before the page number (qtd. is the abbreviation for quoted). Garza

is the primary source; LaSalle is the secondary source.

11. When quoting a government document, your signal phrase should refer to the government entity that authored the

document.

 The United States Department of Defense states,

 For the parenthetical citation, name the government and government entity that authored the document along with the

appropriate page number:

 The United States Department of Defense states, “It is Department of Defense policy to make available timely and

accurate information” (United States Department of Defense 1).

12. If you are quoting a historical document, use the title of the document (italics and quotation marks are not necessary)

in the signal phrase.

 The United States Constitution states,

 For the parenthetical citation, include articles and sections or similar information. Using common abbreviations is

acceptable:

 The United States Constitution states, “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the

United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives” (art. I, sec. I).

13. For legal sources, such as a law or a court case, use the appropriate name in your signal phrase (laws are not italicized;

court cases are italicized):

 H.R. 515 states,

 In Miranda v. Arizona, Chief Justice Warren concluded,

 For the parenthetical citation, include articles and sections or similar information when provided. Using common

abbreviations is acceptable. Remember, laws are not italicized, but court cases are italicized:

 H.R. 515 states, “The Secretary of Homeland Security shall collaborate with the Attorney General to establish a

process for the receipt, dissemination, and categorization of information relating to individuals and specific

offenses provided herein” (SEC. 4.3 Collaboration).

 In Miranda v. Arizona, Chief Justice Warren concluded, “The cases before us raise questions which go to the roots

of our concepts of American criminal jurisprudence: the restraints society must observe consistent with the

Federal Constitution in prosecuting individuals for crime” (1).

14. To quote a web source, refer to the author’s name in the signal phrase (if provided). If the author’s name is not given,

use the title of the source, such as the title of the article or, if no article is given, the title of the website):

 “Chasing the Duende” says that

 Approach the parenthetical information just like other citations. If a page number is included on the web page, use it.

Otherwise, if provided, use other information that will help the reader find the source. Remember, recognizable

abbreviations are acceptable. If page numbers etc. are not included, omit the parenthetical citation, and make sure you

include the URL in the works cited entry so your reader can find the source as easily as possible.

 The online article “Chasing the Duende” says that “the duende rises from the dust and settles on the sword.”

15. For a film, use the name of the director or actor in the signal phrase to showcase their work. Or use the name of the

character to establish the focus of the scene. You may also use the name of the movie in the signal phrase:

 The protagonist Luke Skywalker said,

 In the groundbreaking feature film Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, Luke Skywalker said,

 If you only use the name of a director, actor, or character in the signal phrase, follow the quotation with a parenthetical

citation that includes the name of the movie. If the name of the movie is in the signal phrase, omit the parenthetical

citation. In your works cited page, list the movie based on what you are emphasizing in the signal phrase. If you are

emphasizing a director, actor, or character, list the movie accordingly. If you are emphasizing the movie itself, list it

under the title.

 The protagonist Luke Skywalker said, “I want to come with you to Alderaan. There’s nothing for me here now. I

want to learn the ways of the Force and become a Jedi like my father” (Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope).

 In the groundbreaking feature film Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, Luke Skywalker said, “I want to come

with you to Alderaan. There’s nothing for me here now. I want to learn the ways of the Force and become a Jedi

like my father.”

SEVEN: How to Format Short and Long Quotations of Prose and Poetry

1. A short quotation of prose contains four lines or less. “Four lines” refers to the how the text appears in its original

format, such as in a book or a magazine, not how it looks on your paper after you p rint it. To cite a short quotation,

follow this example:

Esquivel writes about the theme of love by carefully describing a dinner that took place on the ranch. To prepare the

dinner, Tita plucked rose petals off their stems to make a sauce. When she plucked them, she scratched herself on the thorns.

Drops of blood dripped into the sauce as she thought about Pedro—the man she loved. After she made the sauce, she prepared the

quail. Tita was sweating while cooking the quail; as she prepared the quail, she was still thinking about Pedro. When she

presented the dinner to her guests, Tita’s blood and sweat magically affected the food. Esquivel said, “It was as if a strange

alchemical process had dissolved her entire being in the rose petal sauce, in the tender flesh of the quails, in the wine, in every

one of the meals aromas” (52). THEN CONTINUE WRITING YOUR ESSAY HERE.

There are several important MLA rules to observe in this example:

 A signal phrase and a comma introduce the quotation.

 The quotation is followed by the page number.

 The page number is placed outside the quotation marks.

 For additional rules, see “How to Use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the

Basics.”

2. A short quotation of poetry contains three lines or less. “Three lines” refers to how the text appears in its original

format. Remember, three lines, not three sentences. Use the “/” mark to indicate line breaks. Place a space before and

after the “/” mark. To cite a short quotation, follow this example:

“Pig” uses the concrete images of a Mack truck to create a theme of toil. Abraham Tovar is pulling into the parking lot of a

sausage factory. He sees the workers swatting at flies, and he sees how the workers wear their work in the form of blood and fat

clinging to their skin. Above the workers is the sun. The heat melts the frozen meat products, making the men even more aware

of their surroundings as they sink their hands into the cartons of meat to make sausage. The poet shows the toil of the day. He

says that “Mack trucks came in with unprocessed pork / and took out chorizo, linguica, hot links, and sausage /” (11). THEN

CONTINUE WRITING YOUR ESSAY HERE.

There are several important MLA rules to observe in this example:

 The signal phrase flows smoothly into the direct quotation because of the word “that” so no comma is needed.

 A slash mark is used to indicate line breaks.

 The quotation is followed by the page number.

 The page number is placed outside the quotation marks.

 For additional rules, see “How to Use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the

Basics.”

3. A long quotation of prose contains five lines or more in the original text. Again, “five lines” refers to how the text

looks in its original format, not how it looks in your essay. If you have a long quotation, follow this example:

Esquivel writes about the theme of love by carefully describing a dinner that took place on the ranch. To prepare

the dinner, Tita plucked rose petals off their stems to make a sauce. When she plucked them, she scratched herself on

the thorns. Drops of blood dripped into the sauce as she thought about Pedro—the man she loved. After she made the

sauce, she prepared the quail. Tita was sweating while cooking the quail; as she prepared the quail, she was still

thinking about Pedro. When she presented the dinner to her guests, Tita’s blood and sweat magically affected the food.

Esquivel said:

there wasn’t the slightest sign of life in her eyes. It was as if a strange alchemical process had dissolved her entire

being in the rose petal sauce, in the tender flesh of the quails, in the wine, in every one of the meals aromas. That

was the way she entered Pedro’s body, hot, voluptuous, perfumed, totally sensuous. With that meal it seemed they

had discovered a new system of communication. (52)

THEN, CONTINUE WITH YOUR ESSAY BACK ALONG THE LEFT-HAND SIDE.

There are several important MLA rules to observe in this example:

 The quotation is introduced with a colon because it is a long quotation, indented one tab (set to ½ an

inch just like indenting a paragraph), and the quotation marks are omitted.

 The period is placed before the parenthesis which contain the page number.

 After the direct quotation, the paragraph continues along the left margin.

 Otherwise, follow the same rules that are described below under “How to Use the MLA Author Named

in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics.”

4. A long quotation of poetry contains four lines or more in the original text. Again, “four lines” refers to how the text

looks in its original format, not how it looks in your essay. If you have a long quotation of poetry, follow this example:

In “My Papa’s Waltz,” Roethke uses concrete imagery to carefully describe a scene that develops the theme of child abuse.

The poem pulls the readers into the text by making them wonder if they are witnessing a tender moment between a father and

son. Simultaneously, however, the reader wonders if the dance is a waltz or child abuse that will haunt the boy into adulthood.

Roethke says:

The whiskey on your breath

Could make a small boy dizzy;

But I hung on like death:

Such waltzing was not easy. (202)

THEN, CONTINUE WITH YOUR CRITICAL THINKING ALONG THE LEFT-HAND SIDE.

There are several important MLA rules to learn from the example:

 The DQ is introduced with a colon because it is a long quotation, indented one tab (set to ½ an inch just like indenting

a paragraph), and the quotation marks are omitted.

 The period is placed before the parenthesis, which contain the page number.

 The quotation is written exactly how it appears in the original text; thus, slash marks are unnecessary.

 After the direct quotation, the paragraph continues along the left margin.

 Otherwise, follow the same rules that are described below in “How to Use the MLA Author Named in a Signal

Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics.”

EIGHT: How to Use the MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics

1. If the signal phrase is a fragment and the quotation is short, follow the signal phrase with a comma; if the signal phrase

ends with the word “that” and the quotation is short, let the signal phrase flow straight into the direct quotation without

any punctuation; if the signal phrase is a complete sentence, follow the signal phrase with a colon whether the direct

quotation is short or long; always introduce long quotations with a colon.

2. In short quotations, the first letter of the quotation is capitalized the way it appears in the original text.

3. In short quotations, do not begin a quotation with an ellipsis mark; rather, when appropriate, begin a quotation with a

lowercase letter.

4. In short quotations, do not place a period or a comma inside the last set of quotation marks.

5. In short quotations, if the quotation includes an exclamation mark or a question mark, then include either of those

forms of punctuation inside the last quotation mark.

6. You may end a short quotation with an ellipsis mark if you end the quotation in the middle of a sentence. Place the

ellipsis mark inside the last set of quotation marks.

7. For short quotations, the page number is placed outside the quotation marks in a set of parenthesis. Include only the

page number inside the parenthesis. Place a period after the parenthesis.

8. In short quotations, if you have a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks to separate it:

Lorca said, “I have heard an old maestro of the guitar say, ‘the duende climbs up inside you…’” (57).

9. In short quotations, use a single slash mark ( / ) to indicate line breaks. Use a double slash mark ( / / ) to indicate a

stanza break. Place spaces before and after slash marks.

10. Long prose and poetry quotations are written exactly how they appear in the original text.

11. For long quotations, the text is dropped, indented one tab (set to ½ an inch just like indenting paragraphs),

and the quotation marks are omitted. After the direct quotation, the paragraph continues along the left-hand

margin.

12. After long quotations, the page numbers are placed inside a set of parentheses after the last punctuation mark.

13. You may end a long quotation with an ellipsis mark if you end the quotation in the middle of a sentence. Place the

ellipsis mark before the page number.

14. If you need to change a quotation so it flows smoothly with the signal phrase, use brackets ( [ ] ) to indicate the part you

have changed. Alter as little of the direct quotation as possible. For example, in the following quotation, “I” was

replaced with “he” to avoid confusing points of view: Rodriguez said that “[he] gestured nostalgically toward the past”

(67).

15. If a quotation begins on one page and flows onto the next page, use the hyphen: (12-13).

NINE: How to Write a Works Cited Page and Sample Works Cited Page

Works cited pages are essential parts of research papers. They establish an author’s authority by showing where his research

originated. Below is an explanation of how to format a works cited page. Following those guidelines are several common types of

sources students often use. Follow those examples to cite your sources. Next, you will find a sample works cited page. For

additional citing methods, please consult the MLA Handbook Eighth Edition.

Formatting

1. Begin your works cited page on a separate page at the end of y our research paper. It should have the same one-inch

margins and last name, page number header as the rest of your paper.

2. Title it Works Cited. Center the title at the top of the page. Do not italicize the title, underline it, or use quotation

marks.

3. Double space all citations, but do not skip spaces between entries.

4. Indent the second and subsequent lines of citations one tab (½ an inch) so that you create a hanging indent.

5. Entries are listed alphabetically by the author’s name (or, if appropriate, the editor’s name or translator’s name). Names

are written last name first; middle names or middle initials follow the first name. If the author is unknown (of if there is

no editor or translator), begin with the title of the work and alphabetize the entries accordingly.

The MLA Handbook Eighth Edition Has Established the Following Criteria to Help Writers Make Works Cited Pages (20)

1. Author.

2. Title of source.

3. Title of container,

4. Contributors,

5. Version,

6. Number,

7. Publisher,

8. Publication date,

9. Location.

 Apply this criteria as best you can to the sources you have in your research papers. Use common sense, pay attention to

detail, and most of all, make sure your works cited page reflects your in-text quotations so your reader can easily access

your resources. Make sure you use the correct piece of punctuation after each piece of criteria. If a piece of criteria

does not apply to your resource, omit the criteria from the citation.

1. For a book with one author.

 Author. Richard Rodriguez

 Title of source. Hunger of Memory

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Bantam Books

 Publication date, 2004

 Location. p. 76

Rodriguez, Richard. Hunger of Memory. Bantam Books, 2004, p. 76.

2. For a book with two authors.

 Author. Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner

 Title of source. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Allyn and Bacon

 Publication date, 2000

 Location. p. 200

Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring. Allyn, 2000, p. 100.

3. For a book with three or more authors.

 Author. Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al.

 Title of source. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition.

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Utah State UP

 Publication date, 2004

 Location. pp. 9-10

Wysocki, Anne Frances, et al. Writing New Media: Theory and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition. Utah

State UP, 2004, pp. 9-10.

4. For works with one editor, such as an anthology, begin with the name of the author of the individual work, not

the editor.

 Author. William Faulkner

 Title of source. “A Rose For Emily”

 Title of container, Literature: an Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama

 Contributors, X.J. Kennedy, editor

 Version, Fifth Edition

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Harper Collins

 Publication date, 1991

 Location. p. 26

Faulkner, William. “A Rose for Emily.” Literature: an Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, edited by X.J. Kennedy,

fifth edition, Harper Collins, 1991, p. 26.

5. For works with two editors, combine methods 2 and 4.

6. For works with three or more editors, combine methods 3 and 4.

7. For translated works, use the translator as the author. Use the original creator of the work as the contributor.

 Author. Liz Werner, translator

 Title of source. Antipoems: How to Look Better and Feel Great

 Title of container,

 Contributors, By Nicanor Parra

 Version,

 Number,

 Publisher, New Directions

 Publication date, 2004

 Location. p. 32

Werner, Liz, translator. Antipoems: How to Look Better and Feel Great. By Nicanor Parra, New Directions, 2004, p. 32.

8. For works with two translators, combine methods 2 and 7.

9. For works with three or more translators, combine methods 3 and 7.

10. For sacred texts.

 Author. Not applicable

 Title of source. New American Bible

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, St. Joseph Edition

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Catholic Book Publishing Company

 Publication date, 1992

 Location. Not applicable

New American Bible. General Editor, Stephen J. Hartdegen, St. Joseph Edition, Catholic Book Publishing Company, 1992.

 When referring to the Bible, uppercase the B. Do not use italics. When referring to a specific version, use italics, such

as New American Bible. Note that “Location” is not needed for sacred texts because of the in-text citation.

11. For a newspaper.

 Author. Donald Munro

 Title of source. “Unforgettable Face”

 Title of container, The Fresno Bee

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Section F

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, March 27, 2016

 Location. pg. 1

Munro, Donald. “Unforgettable Face.” The Fresno Bee, Section F, 27 March 2016, pp. 1-2.

12. For a magazine.

 Author. Julene Bair

 Title of source. “Where we Write”

 Title of container, Poets and Writers

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, May/ June 2014

 Location. pp. 29-30

Bair, Julene. “Where We Write.” Poets and Writers, May/ June 2014, pp. 29-30.

13. For a scholarly journal.

 Author. Asher, Curt, et al

 Title of source. “A Generation of Transition: a Study of the Usage and Attitudes Toward Public Libraries by

Generation 1.5 Composition Students”

 Title of container, Reference and User Servicers Quarterly

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, 47 (volume)

 Number, 3 (issue)

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, fall 2008

 Location. pp. 274-279

Asher, Curt, et al. “A Generation of Transition: a Study of the Usage and Attitudes Toward Public Libraries by Generation 1.5

Composition Students.” Reference and User Servicers Quarterly, 47.3, fall 2008, pp. 274-279.

14. For an article from a library database.

 Author. Hirsch, Edward

 Title of source. “The Duende”

 Title of container, American Poetry Review

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, 28 (volume)

 Number, 4

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, Jul/ Aug 2004

 Location. pp. 13-21

 Container (a second container is needed for the database), EBSCOhost

 Location (a second location is needed for the web address).

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.scccd.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=28849e99-93ec-4928-9d69-

c1939d1ca6e1%40sessionmgr120&vid=5&hid=124.

Hirsch, Edward. “The Duende.” American Poetry Review, vol. 28, no. 4, Jul/ Aug 2004, pp. 13-21. EBSCOhost, http:

//web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.scccd.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=28849e99-93ec-4928-9d69

c1939d1ca6e1%40sessionmgr 120&vid=5&hid=124.

15. For an interview (Interviews may be found on television, in newspapers, magazines, email. This example is for

an interview that appeared in a magazine. For other types of interviews, simply fill out the criteria as best as you

can with common sense, detail, and coherence.

 Author. Richard Bausch (the person being interviewed)

 Title of source. “An Interview with Richard Bausch” (title of the interview)

 Title of container, The Writer’s Chronicle

 Contributors, interviewed by Sarah Anne Johnson

 Version, 46 (volume)

 Number, 5 (number)

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, March/ April 2014

 Location. p. 15

Bausch, Richard. “An Interview with Richard Bausch.” The Writer’s Chronicle, interviewed by Sarah Anne Johnson, 46.1,

March/ April 2014, p. 15.

16. For a movie still in theatres or down streamed (no emphasis on participants).

 Author. Not applicable

 Title of source. Star Wars: the Force Awakens

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Directed by J.J. Abrahams, performances by Daisy Ridley et. al.

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Lucas Film Ltd

 Publication date, December 2015

 Location. Film (if viewed in theatre or down streamed)

Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Directed by J.J. Abrahams, performances by Daisy Ridley et. al., Lucas Film Ltd, December

2015, film.

17. For a movie still in theatres or down streamed (emphasis on participants, such as director, actor, etc).

 Author. J.J. Abrahams, director. (optional—depending on what the writer wants to emphasize)

 Title of source. Star Wars: the Force Awakens

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Performances by Daisy Ridley et. al., (optional depending on who or what the writer wants to

emphasize).

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Lucas Film Ltd

 Publication date, December 2015

 Location. Film (if viewed in theatre or down streamed)

Abrahams, J.J., director. Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Performances by Daisy Ridley et. al., Lucas Film Ltd, December 2015, film.

18. For a movie already on BR, DVD, and VHS (no emphasis on participants).

 Author. Not applicable

 Title of source. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, George Lucas, director

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Twentieth Century Fox

 Publication date, 1977

 Location. BR

Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Directed by George Lucas, Twentieth Century Fox, 1977. BR. (MLA Pocket 8th edition).

19. For a movie already on BR, DVD, and VHS (emphasis on participants, such as director, actor, etc).

 Author. Mark Hamel. performer. (optional—depending on who or what the writer wants to emphasize)

 Title of source. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable (optional—depending on who or what the writer wants to emphasize)

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Twentieth Century Fox

 Publication date, 1977

 Location. BR

Mark Hamel, performer. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Twentieth Century Fox, 1977, BR.

20. For a source found online, such as an article or other material.

 Author. Allan Kozinn

 Title of source. “Lazar Berman, Pianist Known for Powerful Style, Dies at 74”

 Title of container, The New York Times

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Arts Section (does not exactly fit but still helps reader find article)

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, February 9, 2005

 Location. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/09/arts/music/lazar-berman-pianist-known-for-powerful-style-dies-

at-74.html?_r=0

Kozinn, Allan. “Lazar Berman, Pianist Known for Powerful Style, Dies at 74.” The New York Times, Arts Section, February 9,

2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/09/arts/music/lazar-berman-pianist-known-for-powerful-style-dies-at-

74.html?_r=0.

21. For a work of art viewed in person (painting, sculpture, photograph, etc).

 Author. Kahlo, Frida

 Title of source. Fulang-Chang and I (names of works of art are italicized)

 Title of container, Not applicable

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, oil on composition board (may not fit perfectly but still helps reader)

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, 1937-1939

 Location. MoMA

Kahlo, Frida. Fulang-Chang and I. Oil on composition board, 1937-1939, MoMA.

22. For a work of art viewed online (painting, sculpture, photograph, etc).

 Author. Kahlo, Frida

 Title of source. Fulang-Chang and I (names of works of art are italicized)

 Title of container, MOMA.org

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, oil on composition board (may not fit perfectly but still helps reader)

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, 1937-1939

 Location. http://www.moma.org/collection/works/79374?locale=en

Kahlo, Frida. Fulang-Chang and I. moma.org, Oil on composition board, 1937-1939, http://www.moma.org/collection/works/

79374?locale=en.

23. For a government document viewed online.

 Author. Not applicable

 Title of source. Principals of Information.

 Title of container, United States Department of Defense

 Contributors, Not applicable

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, September 27, 2000

 Location. www.defense.gov/Resources/Principles-of-Information

Principals of Information. United States Department of Defense, September 27, 2000, https://www.defense.gov/Resources/

Principles-of-Information.

24. For a historical document viewed online.

 Author. James Madison, et. al.

 Title of source. Constitution of the United States

 Title of container, Archives.gov

 Contributors, Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, et. al.

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, Not applicable

 Location. http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html

Madison, James. Constitution of the United States. Archives.gov, Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, George

Washington, et. al., www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html.

25. For a legal document viewed online, such as laws and court cases.

 Author. Not applicable

 Title of source. “H.R.515: International Megan’s Law to Prevent Child Exploitation and Other Sexual Crimes

Through Advanced Notification of Traveling Sex Offenders”

 Title of container, Congress.gov

 Contributors, Rep. Smith, Christopher H. (R-NJ), sponsor

 Version, Not applicable

 Number, Not applicable

 Publisher, Not applicable

 Publication date, 2015-2016

 Location. https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/515/textH.R.515

“H.R.515: International Megan’s Law to Prevent Child Exploitation and Other Sexual Crimes Through Advanced Notification of

Traveling Sex Offenders,” Congress.gov, Rep. Smith, Christopher H. (R-NJ), sponsor, 2015-2016,

www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/515/textH.R.515.

Sample Works Cited Page

Faulkner William. “A Rose for Emily.” Literature: an Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, edited by X.J. Kennedy, fifth

edition, Harper Collins, 1991, p. 26.

Hirsch, Edward. American Poetry Review. 28.4, Jul/ Aug 2004, pp. 13-21. EBSCOhost, http: //web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.

scccd.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=28849e99-93ec-4928-9d69c1939d1ca6e1%40sessionmgr 120&vid

=5&hid=124.

Kahlo, Frida. Fulang-Chang and I. Oil on composition board, 1937-1939, MoMA.

Rodriguez, Richard. Hunger of Memory. Bantam Books, 2004, p. 76.

Werner, Liz, translator. Antipoems: How to Look Better and Feel Great. By Nicanor Parra, New Directions, 2004, p. 32.

TEN: How to Write an Annotated Bibliography and Sample Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is similar to a works cited. For example, both cite sources. To cite sources in an annotated

bibliography, follow the same guidelines you would for a works cited page. An annotated bibliography, however, goes into

greater detail because it contains annotations. Here are several key points that you must remain mindful of when composing an

annotated bibliography.

1. An annotated bibliography has several key functions:

 It justifies the student’s choice of sources.

 It proves the student understands the source and its validity.

 It establishes authority for your research.

2. An annotation contains key pieces of information:

 The source and the credentials of the source (the citation).

 A summary of the sources content.

 A brief explanation of how/ why it is used in the student’s research paper.

3. An annotated bibliography is the result of several intellectual skills:

 Locating and recording citations for sources that may contain useful information and ideas on your topic.

 Examining and reviewing the actual items; for example, read, highlight, and annotate each source that you use.

 Choosing those works that provide a variety of perspectives on your topic.

 Citing the book, article, or document using the appropriate MLA style.

 Writing a concise annotation that summarizes the central theme and scope of the book or article.

 Describing how the work illuminates the student’s thesis.

 Using the students’ own diction and syntax thus avoiding plagiarism.

4. On the following page is a sample annotated bibliography. The annotated bibliography was based on the following

thesis: Generation 1.5 students who have not mastered the English language should be required by their teachers to visit

the library at least once a week. The essay contained an introduction, four paragraphs in the body of the essay, and the

conclusion. Note the following formatting requirements.

 The entire page is double spaced with no extra spaces anywhere.

 The title is simply “Annotated Bibliography” with no underlining, bold face, or quotation marks, etcetera.

 Citations are arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name or the title if no author is given.

 The first line of each citation is left margin justified. Subsequent lines of that citation are indented one tab.

 The annotation begins immediately after the citation.

 The annotation should not be written in first person.

 An annotated bibliography contains cited sources that follow the same MLA guidelines as a works cited page.

Sample Annotated Bibliography

On the following page, you will see a sample annotated bibliography. The first resource cited (“Asher”) has been broken down to

help you see the three parts of an entry . The citation is in bold, the summary is in italics, and the explanation is underlined. When

you write your annotated bibliography, make sure you consciously compose each of these three parts.

Annotated Bibliography

Asher, Curt, and Emerson Case. “A Generation in Transition: A Study of the Usage and Attitudes Toward Public Libraries

by Generation 1.5 Composition Students.” Reference & User Services Quarterly, 47.3, 2008, pp. 274-279. This article

is about how Asher and Case’s research examines Generation 1.5 students’ attitudes, experiences, and roles that the

public library plays in their success in an English composition course. This study, which takes place at California State

University, Bakersfield, states that although second language acquisition has been studied in depth, this research has

never focused on the immense possibilities the library has of helping Generation 1.5 students. In this research, out of 41

students, 78 percent had not visited the library in six months and 34 percent said they had not visited the library because

of linguistic barriers. This research is in the term paper because the statistics in this source establish important factual

information for the term paper. They support how using the library is extremely important for students who need to

improve their reading skills.

Brinkley, Judith. “Generation 1.5 Students Need Time.” Linguistics Today, Tomorrow, and Beyond, 25.1, 2010, pp. 1-5. In this

research, Brinkley lends an opposing view. She does not believe that Generation 1.5 students should be pushed too hard.

She believes that they should be slowly nurtured so that they have time to develop self-confidence. Brinkley says that

requiring them to participate in activities, such as going to the library, may intimidate them. Instead, she thinks students

should be encouraged to learn in ways they feel comfortable, such as using social networking sites. Brinkley does not

support the notion that grammar is important. She believes that students simply need to get across their thoughts. This

argument is in the term paper because it offers a viewpoint that contradicts the thesis and thus acknowledges an opposing

stance: in her mind, the library represents how some ideas are forced upon people instead of letting them blossom more

naturally.

Forrest, Scott N. “Three Foci of an Effective High School Generation 1.5 Literacy Program.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult

Literacy, 50.2, 2006, pp.106-112. In her work, Forrest claims that it is of extreme importance that the need of Generation

1.5 students are met at the high school level. The students whose needs are not met, according to the author, have very

limited academic success. In order for these needs to be met, the author makes nine recommendations that should be

implemented at the high school level. These recommendations will help Generation 1.5 students continue learning

academic English as they develop their cognitive skills. One of these recommendations is for high schools to “develop

academic literacy.” These recommendations outline a policy that support the thesis in this term paper: students should be

given unlimited access to the campus library so that the students can grow as college students and master the English

language.

Gunderson, Lee. “The State of the Art of Secondary ESL Teaching and Learning.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52.3,

2008, pp. 184-188. Gunderson’s article speaks of the author’s ESL teaching experience from the 60’s when he saw for

the first time the growth and importance of bilingual education. Unfortunately, according to the author, the North

American school systems are in trouble. ESL students in American school system make up over 10 percent of the entire

U.S. school system, yet these students are dropping out of high school because they never learn to read and write in

English. Gunderson believes that their schools have failed the students because they have never been taught to read and

write in their native language; thus, learning a second language, when they don’t really know their first language, becomes

an even more difficult ask. The author believes that teachers must become familiarized with these students’ cultures in

order to help them achieve academic success. By being aware of the students’ cultural backgrounds, one of the students’

most important needs are met: their sense of security. Thus, this work supports the thesis because if students are assigned

research papers that focus on their cultural backgrounds and are taken to the library to conduct research, the library will

become a place they embrace during their academic careers, which also supports the argument brought forth by this term

paper’s thesis.

ELEVEN: Common Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies

In your works cited page and/ or annotated bibliography, you may use these common abbreviations. Make sure you maintain the

capitalization and punctuation that you see here. You may also use these abbreviations (if appropriate) in the annotated citations

that appear after quotations. Remember, however, that you should not use abbreviations in your essay’s actual text.

1. ch. = chapter

2. dept. = department

3. ed. = edition

4. et. al. = and others

5. no. = number

6. p. = page

7. par. = paragraph

8. pp. = pages

9. qtd. in = quoted in

10. sec. = section

11. vol. = volume

Names of months that contain five letters or more are abbreviated:

1. Jan.

2. Feb.

3. Mar.

4. Apr.

5. Aug.

6. Sept.

7. Oct.

8. Nov.

9. Dec.

CHAPTER EIGHT: How to Write an Essay

An Introduction

SECTION ONE: The Prompt

SECTION TWO: Prewriting—Brainstorming

SECTION THREE: Prewriting—Making an Outline

SECTION FOUR: Write Your Essay—Follow These Steps When You Write Your Essay

SECTION FIVE: Sample Student Essay

HOW to WRITE AN ESSAY—An Introduction

The following chapter describes the process for writing an essay. This is not the only way to write an essay. When you take other

English classes, you will learn other stratagems that will make you an even better writer. The steps described in SECTION ONE

were inspired by Frederick Douglass’s “Learning to Read and Write.” These writing strategies will give you a foundation that

will help you throughout your college career.

SECTION ONE: The Steps

SECTION TWO: The Prompt

SECTION THREE: Prewriting—Brainstorming

SECTION FOUR: Prewriting—Making an Outline

SECTION FIVE: Write Your Essay (sample student essay)

SECTION ONE: The Prompt

To write an essay, read the essay prompt carefully and identify key words that you must use in your thesis. Here is a sample essay

prompt:

The Topic: In “Dumpster Diving,” what values helped Lars Eighner survive homelessness?

The Supportive Material: Support your thesis sentence with an essay that contains an introduction, four paragraphs in

the body of the essay, and the conclusion. Each paragraph in the body of the essay must be written around a direct

quotation that supports the thesis. To write your essay, focus on the writing stratagems described in the grammar book.

SECTION TWO: Prewriting—Brainstorming

After reading the essay prompt carefully, do some brainstorming, such as listing, by selecting all the values you can think of or

by listing all the possible ways you can to a given essay topic.

Brainstorming Exercise (the page numbers refer to quotations that support the value)

Listing Values

1. Pride (400)

2. Humility (400)

3. Resourcefulness (404)

4. Smart (402)

5. Considerate (405)

6. Pride (403)

7. Considerate (401)

8. Realist (404)

9. Hope (406)

10. Empathy (406A)

11. Empathy (406B)

12. Respect (406)

13. Hope (404)

14. Compassion (406)

15. Considerate (406)

16. Pride (405)

17. Loving (408)

SECTION THREE: Prewriting—Making an Outline

Next, use your listing to compose an outline. Each student may compose an outline according to what works best for him or her.

Here is a detailed outline that might help you compose your own outline.

The Introduction

I. The thesis

A. In Lars Eighner’s “On Dumpster Diving,” four values that helped the author overcome survive homelessness

are humility, consideration, empathy, and compassion.

I. The supportive material (Four sentences, specific parts of the DQ, use strong synonyms for the values)

A. Humility: “I like the frankness of the word…” (400) “scavenging” (400)

B. Consideration: “pairs of shoes” (405)

C. Empathy: “I find many pets Lizbeth” (406)

D. Loving Compassion: “Many times in my travels Love letters and ragdolls…” (408)

First Paragraph in the Body of the Essay

I.The topic sentence

A. Be sure to include the key words, which are “value,” “overcome,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and

“humility.” Also, include the part of the direct quotation that is going to be analyzed in critical thinking step

3: “scavenging.” One sentence.

B. The context (At least four well-written sentences. Use your diction and syntax. Describe what took place in

the events leading up to the direct quotation).

1. Always had an interest in dumpsters. Wrote to Webster’s Dictionary .

2. Doesn’t like when winos or hobos call them Dipsy Dumpsters.

3. Prefers “scavenging.”

4. Thinks “Dumpster diving” is too cute.

C. The signal phrase and direct quotation.

1. Eighner said, “I like the frankness of the word “scavenging,” which I can hardly think of without

picturing a big black snail on an aquarium wall. I live from the refuse of others. I am a scavenger. I think

it a sound and honorable niche…” (400).

D. Critical thinking step 1: (One sentence, repeat the key words).

1. Include the key words, which are “value,” “overcome,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “humility.”

E. Critical thinking step 2: (Carefully summarize the direct quotation using your own diction and syntax. Do not

pull specific parts out of the quotation. One sentence).

1. Write the sentence…

F. Critical thinking step 3: (Pull “specific parts” out of the direct quotation, write at least four well-written

sentences that explain how the specific parts support the thesis, use strong synonyms, and show an

intellectual arch). CRITICAL THINKING STEP 3 IS THE HEART OF THE ESSAY.

1. Dissect the meaning of the word “scavenging” but also tie in “black snail” and “honorable.”

G. Critical thinking step 4: (Write a transitional sentence that sets up the next paragraph by using strong

synonyms).

1. Use “thoughtful” as a synonym for considerate.

Second Paragraph in the Body of the Essay

I. Topic Sentence

A. Be sure to include the key words, which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and

“consideration/considerate.” Also, include the part of the direct quotation that is going to be analyzed in

critical thinking step 3: focus on “pairs of shoes” (405). One sentence.

B. The context (At least four well-written sentences. Use your diction and syntax. Describe what took place

leading up to the direct quotation).

1. Cares about his friends who are also homeless (401).

2. Knows what food spoils quickly. Not wasteful (402).

3. He is not a drunk (403).

4. He makes due with what he has (“Walkman” and “earphones”) (404).

5. Smart and plans ahead (405).

C. The signal phrase and direct quotation.

1. Eighner said, “There are precious few courtesies among scavengers. But it is a common practice to set

aside surplus items: pairs of shoes, clothing, canned goods, and such. A true scavenger hates to see good

stuff go to waste and what he cannot use he leaves in good condition in plain sight” (405).

D. Critical Thinking step 1: (One sentence, repeat the key words).

1. Include the key words which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “considerate.”

E. Critical Thinking Step 2: (Carefully summarize the direct quotation, using your own diction and syntax. Do

not pull specific parts out of the direct quotation. One sentence).

1. Write the sentence…

F. Critical Thinking step 3: (Pull specific parts out of the direct quotation, write at least four well-written

sentences that explain how the specific parts support the thesis, use strong synonyms, and show an

intellectual arch).CRITICAL THINKING STEP 3 IS THE HEART OF THE ESSAY.

1. Dissect the meaning of the phrase “pairs of shoes” but also tie in “clothing” and “canned goods.”

G. Critical Thinking Step 4: (Write a transitional sentence that sets up the next paragraph by using strong

synonyms).

1. Use “understanding” as a synonym for empathy.

Third Paragraph in the Body of the Essay

I. Topic Sentence

A. Be sure to include the key words, which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “empathy.” Also,

include the part of the direct quotation that is going to be analyzed in critical thinking step 3: focus on

“Lizbeth” (406). One sentence.

B. The context (At least four well-written sentences. Use your diction and syntax. Describe what took place

leading up to the direct quotation).

1. Hates “can scroungers” (406).

2. Doesn’t like to go through other people’s individual garbage cans (406).

3. Doesn’t judge people by their trash (406).

4. Sometimes garbage reveals a person’s broken heart (406).

C. The signal phrase and direct quotation.

1. Eighner said, “Dumpster things are often sad—abandoned teddy bears, shredded wedding books,

despaired of sales kits. I find many pets lying in state in Dumpsters. Although I hope to get off the

streets so that Lizbeth can have a long and comfortable old age, I know this hope is not very realistic. So

I suppose when her time comes she too will go into a Dumpster” (406).

D. Critical Thinking step 1: (One sentence, repeat the key words).

1. Include the key words which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “empathy.”

E. Critical Thinking step 2: (Carefully summarize the direct quotation, using your own diction and syntax. Do

not pull specific parts out of the direct quotation. One sentence).

1. Write the sentence…

F. Critical Thinking step 3: (Pull specific parts out of the direct quotation, write at least four well-written

sentences that explain how the specific parts support the thesis, use strong synonyms, and show an

intellectual arch). CRITICAL THINKING STEP 3 IS THE HEART OF THE ESSAY.

1. Dissect the meaning of the word “Lizbeth” (406). Also tie in “long and comfortable old age,” “hope,”

and “Dumpster.

G. Critical Thinking Step 4: (Write a transitional sentence that sets up the next paragraph by using strong

synonyms).

1. Use the word “tenderness” as a synonym for compassion.

Fourth Paragraph in the Body of the Essay

I. Topic Sentence

A. Be sure to include key words, which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “compassion.” Also,

include the part of the direct quotation that is going to be analyzed in critical thinking step 3: focus on “Many

times in my traveslove letters and rag dolls” (408). One sentence.

B. The context (At least four well-written sentences. Use your own diction and syntax. Describe what took place

leading up to the direct quotation).

1. Likes to read (407).

2. Hunters leave small animals that they have shot but not killed, cruelty (407).

3. Depends on himself (408).

4. Keep only what he needs (408).

C. The signal phrase and direct quotation.

1. Eighner said, “in my travels I have lost everything but the clothes I was wearing and Lizbeth. The things

I find in Dumpsters, the love letters and ragdolls of so many lives, remind me of this lesson” (408).

D. Critical Thinking step 1: (One sentence, repeat the key words).

1. Include the key words, which are “value,” “survive,” “homelessness,” and “compassion.”

E. Critical Thinking step 2: (Carefully summarize the direct quotation, using your own diction and syntax. Do

not pull out specific parts of the direct quotation. One sentence).

1. Write the sentence…

F. Critical Thinking step 3: (Pull specific parts out of the direct quotation, write at least four well-written

sentences that explain how the specific parts support the thesis, use strong synonyms, and show an

intellectual arch). CRITICAL THINKING STEP 3 IS THE HEART OF THE ESSAY.

1. Dissect the meaning of “love letters and ragdolls” (408).

G. Critical Thinking step 4: (Write a transitional sentence that sets up the next paragraph by using strong

synonyms).

1. Transition not needed for fourth body paragraph, but make sure you finish critical thinking step 3 very

strong.

The Conclusion

I. Thesis

A. Copy and Paste the thesis: In Lars Eighner’s “On Dumpster Diving,” four values that helped the author

survive homelessness are humility, consideration, empathy, and compassion.

B. The supportive material: (four sentences, specific parts of the DQ, strong synonyms for the values)

1. Humility/ Humble/Modest: “Scavenging…” (400)

2. Consideration/ Kind: “Pair of shoes…” (405)

3. Empathy/ Understanding/ Pity: “Lizbeth…” (406)

4. Compassion/ Tenderness/ Warm-heartedness: “Love Letters and ragdolls…” (408)

C. Final Statement: (Pure critical thinking, reach beyond the thesis by explaining what the reader learns from the

essay. Use your final statement as inspiration for a strong title).

(please see next page for section 4)

SECTION FOUR: Write Your Essay—Follow These Steps When You Write Your Essay

I. How to Write an Introductory Paragraph

A. Read the essay topic carefully.

B. Identify KEY WORDS in the essay topic.

C. Identify what the topic specifically requires.

D. Use those key words to address what the essay topic specifically requires and write your THESIS sentence.

E. Make your THESIS sentence the first sentence in your introduction.

F. Do not simply rewrite the topic.

G. Carefully list your SUPPORTIVE MATERIAL in a series of well-written sentences. Write one sentence for each

paragraph in the body of the essay. To stay focused on the thesis, use synonyms that refer to key words in the thesis.

Each of these sentences must also focus precisely on the part of the direct quotation that you are going to examine in

the body of the essay. That part of the quotation must be in quotation marks and should be in the form of a word or a

phrase. In other words, be very focused.

H. Your introduction does not need any other sentences: it only needs the thesis and the supportive material.

II. How to Write Each Paragraph in the Body of the Essay

A. Write a TOPIC SENTENCE to establish the paragraph’s focal point. Use all your key words in the topic sentence.

Make sure your topic is a clear reflection of the supportive material listed in your introduction by addressing the

specific part of the direct quotation that you are going to examine in the critical thinking. Put that specific part of the

direct quotation in quotation marks.

B. Establish the CONTEXT of your supportive material. Your context must include at least four well-written sentences.

The context describes what was taking place in the original text before the direct quotation. Use your own diction and

syntax to avoid plagiarism. If you are writing about a poem, and the poem is short, consider summarizing the entire

poem in the context. Then, you can take the reader back to a specific direct quotation with a signal phrase. If the poem

is long enough, however, simply describe what was taking place in the original text before the direct quotation.

C. Support your topic sentence with a SIGNAL PHRASE and a DIRECT QUOTATION. Use the MLA author named in a

signal phrase method to introduce and cite your quotation.

D. Explain the significance of your direct quotation with CRITICAL THINKING. Your critical thinking must contain at

least seven well-written sentences. Do not begin a paragraph with a direct quotation. Do not end a paragraph with a

direct quotation. To write your critical thinking, follow these four steps and compose an intellectual arch:

1. Begin the critical thinking with a sentence that reinforces the key words—use the actual key words. For the rest of

the critical thinking, use synonyms. Do not include the specific part of the direct quotation. One sentence.

2. Carefully summarize the direct quotation. Use your diction and syntax to avoid plagiarism. Do not be vague.

Instead, be detailed, and show you have command of the direct quotation’s content. Do not include the specific part

of the direct quotation. One sentence.

3. Pull out specific parts of the direct quotation. Place those specific parts of the direct quotation in quotat ion marks at

the beginning of the first sentence of critical thinking step three. Carefully explain how these specific parts of the

direct quotation support your thesis. These are the same parts of the direct quotation introduced in the introduction

and the topic sentences. Step three is the heart of your critical thinking, the summit of your intellectual arch, and the

focus of your essay. At least four sentences.

4. Write a transitional sentence that sets up the next paragraph. In this sentence, use synonyms for your keywords. One

sentence.

E. Below is an image depicting the intellectual arch that you need to develop through your critical thinking and amplification. We

will discuss the arch in detail during lecture.

III. How to Write a Concluding Paragraph

A. Restate your thesis. Copy and paste it. Make it the first sentence in your conclusion.

B. Restate your supportive material. Write one sentence per paragraph in the body of the essay. Do not copy and paste;

rather, show a variety of diction and syntax. Use synonyms that refer to your thesis, and include the specific parts of the

direct quotations that were dissected in the critical thinking. Place those specific parts of the direct quotations in

quotation marks.

C. Make a FINAL STATEMENT. Use your knowledge of grammar to craft the final statement. The final statement is pure

critical thinking. It must reach beyond the thesis and explain why y our essay is important. Teach the reader something

new. Use your critical thinking as inspiration for a creative title. One sentence.

SECTION FIVE: Sample Student Essay (please see next page)

Marissa Arias

Instructor Dominguez

English 125, MW, 12:00

9 March 2016

Despite the Bees, the Ants, and the Mice Stirring in the Dumpsters

In Lars Eighner’s “On Dumpster Diving,” the four values that helped the author survive

homelessness are humility, kindness, empathy, and perseverance. Eighner shows humbleness

through the word “scavenging.” Another quality Eighner possesses is thoughtfulness, and he uses

“pairs of shoes” to explain what role it plays in his life. As the essay continues, Eighner’s

longtime companion “Lizbeth” brings a sense of understanding to the page. Finally, “love letters

and ragdolls” represents his determination as he swims through the insides of dumpsters.

In “On Dumpster Diving,” Eighner describes how several values help him survive

homelessness, such as humility; through the word “scavenging,” the reader sees the reality of

living in the streets. Eighner knew about dumpsters before he became homeless. Out of curiosity,

he researched their history, especially the origin of the word “dumpster.” Because he became an

expert, he dislikes homeless people who mistakenly call them “Dipsy Dumpsters.” He prefers the

word “scavenging” over “diving.” In fact, he doesn’t hesitate to poke fun at himself by saying

“diving” is doggerel and misleading since he can’t really scale a dumpster and jump inside for its

treasures. Eighner says, “I like the frankness of the word ‘scavenging,’ which I can hardly think

of without picturing a big black snail on an aquarium wall. I live from the refuse of others. I am a

scavenger. I think it a sound and honorable niche” (400). As a homeless man, Eighner is humble,

a value that enables him to survive. He likes simple and honest words and finds no shame living

off the junk people toss in the garbage. The word “scavenging” brings to mind “a big black

snail” in a fish tank. The snail consumes what the fish leave behind and thinks nothing of its way

of life. Likewise, Eighner sees nothing wrong with “scavenging” inside dumpsters. In fact, he

believes he is living an “honorable” life because he is simply gliding unassumingly through his

days without hurting a soul. If Eighner allows ego to sneak into his heart, he would no longer be

the humble “scavenger” who survives despite the piles of trash—broken pallets, empty milk

cartons, flee-infested blankets—life has dumped on his shoulders. Even though he faces many

hardships, Eighner shows thoughtfulness towards his fellow “scavengers.”

Another value that helps Eighner survive homelessness is kindness; he uses “pairs of

shoes” to symbolize how it affects his life each time he leaps into the garbage. Sometimes, when

he is looking for food, he searches the trash with his friends, and he never lets them eat

something rotten. One way he finds food is by digging through the garbage college students

leave behind; while they may be wasteful, he does not let a jar of peanut butter feed the vermin.

Occasionally, he finds booze, but he tries not to drink because he is occupied with the business

of surviving. In addition to common sense, a scavenger must possess resourcefulness. For

example, one time he found a set of earphones and a Walkman, and even though they didn’t go

together, he felt they were a treasure. Eighner says he finds everything in dumpsters, but he

usually only keeps items that protect him from the elements. Eighner says, “There are precious

few courtesies among scavengers. But it is a common practice to set aside surplus items: pairs of

shoes, clothing, canned goods, and such. A true scavenger hates to see good stuff go to waste and

what he cannot use he leaves in good condition in plain sight” (405). Kindness, which is an

important value, helped Eighner survive homelessness. Homeless people are rarely polite to each

other, but occasionally, they treat each other well, especially when it comes to setting aside items

that might help somebody eat or sleep. “Pairs of shoes” represents kindness. It represents

kindness because scavengers will save them to help their companions. If someone is barefoot and

tears open their foot, that person could get an infection and die. On the other hand, if Eighner

leaves behind “pairs of shoes,” somebody will be more prepared to walk all day long until he

finds an alley where an Italian restaurant has thrown pizza boxes—still oozing cheese—into a

dumpster. Compassion also played a vital role in Eighner’s life.

A third value that helped Eighner survive homelessness is empathy, and “Lizbeth”

embodies it. Eighner hates people who dig through dumpsters for aluminum cans. When they

toss and turn through garbage, useful objects end up hidden under the bottom heap. Eighner also

hates searching people’s garbage cans. On a pragmatic level, this practice takes too long and

leaves a mess easily spotted from the street, which makes life harder on scroungers because the

public becomes scornful. On another level, he doesn’t’ like shuffling through garbage cans

because it’s like eavesdropping. People throw away photographs and other elements of their lives

that represent daily tragedies. Ultimately, Eighner fears he may have to do the same thing.

Eighner said, “I find many pets lying in state in Dumpsters. Although I hope to get off the streets

so that Lizbeth can have a long and comfortable old age, I know this hope is not very realistic.

So I suppose when her time comes she too will go into a dumpster” (406). Eighner survives

homelessness because he possesses an essential value: empathy. Eighner loves his dog and hopes

he doesn’t have to leave her in a dumpster. “Lizbeth” travels the streets with him. They stick to

each other’s side as they walk up and down the alleys searching for food. The author worries that

when she dies he’ll have to leave her among the city’s plastic bottles, aluminum cans, and paper

cartons like wadded tissue. This thought crushes Eighner, for he feels what she feels each time

she looks up at him and they stop to rest under restaurant eaves when the only light they see is

the streetlamp bouncing off orange dumpster paint. Because he is an empathetic human being, he

takes care of “Lizbeth,” and because he takes care of her, he has companionship. As friends, they

push through days crisscrossed by shadows of telephone wires sagging above chain link and

cinderblock.

As “Dumpster Diving” comes to an end, the value of perseverance rises above the streets,

and Eighner survives homelessness. Despite his wanderings, Eighner loves to read and feels joy

when he finds books and magazines people no longer want. Sadly, in the dumpsters, he also

finds small animals people have shot and left to suffer. As Eighner and Lizbeth travel through

the city, he feels proud of himself because he is able to scrape by with nothing but his brains,

hands, and wits. He thinks nothing is worth keeping unless it saves his life; the rest is trash.

Eighner said, “Many times in my travels I have lost everything but the clothes I was wearing and

Lizbeth. The things I find in Dumpsters, the love letters and ragdolls of so many lives, remind

me of this lesson” (408). Eighner learns that one of the most important values in life is

perseverance, which helps him survive homelessness. Many of the things he finds are not

monetarily valuable; rather, they are valuable because they teach him about life. “Love letters”

and “rag dolls” symbolize perseverance because they represent lost dreams. For example, the

“love letters” were expressions of devotion, but they have been tossed with bill stubs, pamphlets

for home developments, and grocery coupons. In addition, he finds “rag dolls,” which are a

child’s toy. Instead of being kissed and hugged by a little girl, they too are among the scraps of

paper soaking up juices from the dumpster. Eighner could have described anything in the

dumpers, but he chose to focus on these particular objects as if to say life is difficult—people

may lose their loved ones: divorce may split a family. But even then, people must persevere—

they must survive. Despite the tragedies Eighner faces, he marches up and down the sidewalks.

Each step takes him closer to the day he will find a home, and Lizbeth will be trotting beside

him. Until then, when they scrounge, Eighner pauses and runs his fingers through her dirty fur.

Her tail taps his knee, and he forgets about spoiled yogurt, half eaten crackers, booze, botulism,

and dysentery.

In Lars Eighner’s “On Dumpster Diving,” the four values that help the author survive

homelessness are humility, kindness, empathy, and perseverance. “Scavenging” is an important

word in the essay because it represents Eighner’s humbleness. “Pairs of Shoes” also symbolize

an essential element of the narrator’s life because they show his thoughtfulness. “Lizbeth”

reminds the reader that despite his struggles, Eighner remains devoted to his loved ones. Finally,

“love letters and ragdolls” reflects the importance of determination when wandering the streets.

Eighner endures the traumas of homelessness because he finds value in what he possesses, not

what he is missing: each time Lizbeth twitches her ears, love fills Eighner’s chest despite the

bees, the ants, and the mice stirring within the dumpsters.

CHAPTER NINE: Additional Sample Student Essays

An Introduction

 “Chalice of Eternal Glory” by Laura Hand

 “Through the Muck and the Mire” Nicole Huebert

 “Coyotes in Search of a Home” by Gabriella Quijano

 “Dancing to Violins” by Veronica Vela

SAMPLE ESSAYS—AN INTRODUCTION

The following essays illustrate the steps listed in the previous chapter. By studying the essays, you can identify each step. For

example, the introductions contain a thesis and the supportive material. Each paragraph in the body of the essay contains a topic

sentence, context, a signal phrase, a direct quotation, and the critical thinking. In addition, you’ll see each step clearly presented

in the conclusion: thesis, supportive material, and the final statement. By identifying the steps, you will better understand how to

write your own essay.

Laura Hand

Instructor Dominguez

English 1A, MW 2:00-3:50

April 4, 2018

Term Paper: Chalice of Eternal Glory

John Keats, William Wordsworth, and Lord George Gordon Byron march their way

across the page in their poems “Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast as Thou Art,” “I Wandered

Lonely as a Cloud,” and “She Walks in Beauty”; each of their words becomes another step in

their endless crusade to achieve the sublime. In her treatise On the Sublime, Longinus draws a

map that “transports us with wonder” to a land of pure “phantasia” where “grand and

harmonious” temples hold the holy grail of poetry. In the words of Paul Velde, the sublime has

an “inexplicable splendor” that draws poets and readers alike to its divine majesty. In his search

for undying fame, Keats uses symbolism to move his reader to the heavens; his words become a

“[b]right star” for her to follow, for the quality of his writing shines with “stedfast” and

“unchangeable” light. Wordsworth dazzles his reader by turning concrete images like “golden

daffodils” that are “fluttering and dancing in the breeze” into sacred treasures that glisten in the

sunlight. On Lord Byron’s journey to excellence, he entices his reader to follow him with

eloquent and enchanting euphony: his words call her to “cloudless climes” where he is striving to

reach the “starry skies.”

Longinus sets a clear course for the sublime in her treatise by guiding poets with ideas

that “transport us with wonder,” fill the page with “phantasia,” and construct “grand and

harmonious” stanzas; Keats, Wordsworth, and Lord Byron embark on this great quest and march

toward the sublime. Longinus said, “For the effect of elevated language is not to persuade the

hearers, but to amaze them; and at all times, and in every way, what transports us with wonder is

more telling than what merely persuades or gratifies us” (114). Penning words of whimsy will

“transport us with wonder” to the heavens where a poet’s unfading imagination shines. Longinus

also wrote, “You will have noticed that phantasia means one thing with orators and another with

poets—that in poetry its aim is to astonish, in oratory to produce vividness of description, though

both seek to stir the emotions” (133). Wonderous “phantasia” swirls through the reader’s mind

and makes her heart sway in the gentle wind of Spring. When describing composition, Longinus

said, “by the blending of its myriad of tones it brings into the hearts of the bystanders the actual

emotion of the speaker, and always induces them to share it; and finally it builds up an

accumulation on phrases into a grand and harmonious structure” (159). Writing with “grand and

harmonious” sounds lure a reader to extraordinary heights as if she had been called to the

heavens by angel song.

Poets march through line after line, like soldiers on a holy mission, seeking a priceless

treasure; they are drawn to the “inexplicable splendor” of the sublime. In Paul Velde’s article

“Fear of the Sublime,” he contemplates what sublime writing is; he concludes that the sublime is

inspired emotion and is unique to each poet’s experience. Over time, the perception of what is

sublime has shifted because new poets with new ideas have taken the torch of greatness and

illuminated the way to a new sublime. Abandoning the long-established sublime has led to the

death of “honor and nobility”; like a phantom of old, grand words and their relation to the soul

have faded into the mist. The sublime holds fast to its innate power despite its interpretation and

how its substance changes from poet to poet, for the sublime can always be found in its profound

and miraculous structure. Velde wrote, “The sublime is not a raw event, despite its passion and

inexplicable splendor, but an exaltation of order in its irreducible essence” (225). The tone

created by the sublime’s structure acts as a cadence to which the poets march. Poets cannot

create the sublime out of thin air; it must be crafted with desire and beauty, so it will endure,

untarnished, for all time. Velde introduced the idea that there is an “inexplicable splendor”

within the sublime that speaks to both poets and readers, and it tempts them to search for it. A

writer is drawn to the sublime because it is shrouded in mystery, calls to him from the shadows,

and awakens in him a desire to achieve greatness. A reader who has heard its sweet whispers sets

off on an expedition to find the sublime; she is guided by the poet’s hand as he writes words that

entice her with promises of magnificence. Although the destination is the same, poets and

readers each face differing obstacles: the poet must forge a path to the sublime with each line he

writes whereas the reader must distinguish between false prophets and those whom truly know

the way to awe-inspiring radiance. Leading his followers to an endless glory, John Keats is a true

prophet.

In his poem “Bright Star, Would I Were as Stedfast as Thou Art,” Keats uses the symbol

of a “[b]right star” to guide him as he marches into eternity, for the light of the sublime is

“stedfast” and “unchangeable.” This poem begins with a longing for immortality, for he wishes

to be undying like the stars. Although he wants to be like them, he writes that he does not desire

their loneliness. He goes on to describe the stars as restless watchers that witness mortal life from

afar, for they guide life on earth but cannot interfere with its workings. The stars silently observe

as the seas wash away earth’s impurities, and the snow blankets the mountain tops. Keats wrote:

Bright star, would I were stedfast as though art—

Not in lone splendor hung aloft the night,

And watching, with eternal lids apart,

Like nature’s patient, sleepless eremite,

The moving waters at their priestlike task

Of pure ablution round earth’s human shores,

Or gazing on the new soft-fallen mask

Of snow upon the mountains and the moors;

No—yet still stedfast, still unchangeable…(121)

In his writing, Keats uses symbols as stepping stones in his march to the sublime. The stars are a

perpetual light, which are seemingly frozen in time, yet their existence is lonely: a poet only seek

the light of fame, not the darkness of isolation. The “[b]right star” symbolizes Keats’

interpretation of poetic greatness, so it is his guiding light that shines through all that he writes.

Although the task is daunting, he is “stedfast” in his pursuit of its inexplicable splendor, and his

convictions are unwavering and “unchangeable.” His legacy is one of vitality, for his greatest

desire is that his work will live on past his time—he achieves this by becoming the “[b]right

star,” which he personifies. Blazing through the page like a shooting star, his words transports us

with wonder to the realm of the immortal poet. William Wordsworth departs on a similar voyage

seeking fanciful treasures of his own.

Wordsworth marches towards the sublime in his poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”;

along the way, he conjures images that seem to be “fluttering and dancing in the breeze” like

“golden daffodils” in the spring. Wordsworth’s poem starts in a daydream, for he is drifting in

the quiet isolation of his mind like a cloud in the sky. He glides highly over his thoughts with no

clear destination in mind; suddenly, he sees a field of joy. Before him is a scene of flowers

beside a lake, and the imagery is so vivid that it overwhelms him with delight. This vision is

imprinted in his memory, so it can be recalled in times of uninspired boredom. Wordsworth

wrote:

I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o’er vales and hills

When all at once I saw a crowd

A host, of golden daffodils;

Beside the lake, beneath the trees,

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. (102-103)

This mesmerizing imagery helps Wordsworth march to the sublime. Like a mirage, a field of

vibrant flowers appeared; they seemed to shake with laughter as the wind tickled them. A great

treasure awaits poets who dare to gaze upon it: only those who have strong principles and

inspiration will seek it. Wordsworth’s imagination is illuminated by images of “golden daffodils”

that sparkle like yellow diamonds in the sunlight. The light reflects off these precious gems,

“fluttering and dancing in the breeze” like rays of pure joy; each ray pierces the poet’s soul until

he is consumed by its brilliance. Glowing with the riches that greatness has bestowed upon him,

he lights up the world with alluring phantasia. Lord Byron shares in this wealth by composing

poems with words that ring like crystal bells.

In search of the sublime, Lord Byron uses euphony in his poem “She Walks in Beauty”;

the repetitive sounds of “cloudless climes” and “starry skies” create a beat to which he marches.

This poet writes about a woman whom is walking through the darkness, yet she is radiant and

outshines the stars. He describes her as having a perfect balance of dark mystery and glowing

purity; if that balance shifts, her striking charm fades like a dying star. Her outward beauty flows

from within, for her soul is just as luminous as her skin. She is the ideal woman in his eyes

because her saintly qualities are beyond compare. Lord Byron wrote, “She walks in beauty, like

the night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies; / And all that’s best of dark and bright” (115-

116). As he marches, Lord Byron records the sublime’s entrancing song, for each word rings

with euphony. The woman he writes about reflects nature’s rich majesty, for she is as pure as a

winter night and as radiant as a shining star. The sublime echoes through “cloudless climes” like

bells tolling from an ancient monastery. Lord Byron emulates their hallowed song by filling his

poems with entrancing euphony; the soft notes of his c’s and s’s create music that flows from

heaven. His ascent to poetic preeminence is aided by the “starry skies,” for they guide his way

and give light to his lines. Upon reaching the summit of greatness, he uses grand and

harmonious stanzas to build a shrine to the sublime.

John Keats, William Wordsworth, and Lord George Gordon Byron march their way

across the page in their poems “Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast as Thou Art,” “I Wandered

Lonely as a Cloud,” and “She Walks in Beauty”; each of their words becomes another step in

their endless crusade to achieve the sublime. Longinus taught poets that the sublime “transports

us with wonder,” uses “phantasia” to make writing come to life, and builds “grand and

harmonious” poems in which to dwell. Paul Velde believed that there was an “inexplicable

splendor” in the sublime that caused poets toward gravitate it. Keats sought immortality by using

symbols like “[b]right star,” “stedfast,” and “still unchangeable” to pour his soul into his

writings. Wordsworth, however, leaves clues in his concrete imagery of “golden daffodils” that

are “fluttering and dancing in the wind” that lead to glittering treasures. Finally, Lord Byron uses

euphony to coax his reader into following him up “cloudless climes” as he reaches for the “starry

skies.” Keats, Wordsworth, and Lord Byron bravely venture into the unknown as they endeavor

to immortalize their poems—for blessed are they who dare to drink from the chalice of eternal

glory.

Annotated Bibliography

Byron, Lord George Gordon. “She Walks in Beauty.” Gwynn, pp.115-116. In this poem, the

author describes a beautiful, yet mysterious woman. He gives her no name, nor does he

tell the reader of how he knows her. He compares her beauty to the beauty he finds in

nature, but what he finds beautiful is darker and more striking than what most readers

would expect. He uses the contrasting elements of light and dark to add to her mystery;

she possesses a perfect balance of both. His description of her goes deeper than her

outward beauty, for she has an inner beauty that is unblemished. This poem is used in the

term paper because it shows the sublime’s “grand and harmonious” nature through the

euphony of “cloudless climes” and “starry skies.”

Gwynn, R.S., editor. Poetry: A Pocket Anthology. Seventh Edition, Pearson, 2014.

Poetry: A Pocket Anthology includes several poems that reflect fixed form as well as free

verse poetry. This book is used in the term paper because it contains three poems that

reflect the sublime.

Keats, John. “Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast as Thou Art.” Gwynn, p. 121. The poet, who

wrote this poem, is earnestly searching for a way to live beyond his death. He

contemplates how the stars are unchanging and unwavering as they witness the world

pass them by. He writes about how they must be lonely, for they are sleepless sentinels,

who never interact with those they watch over. He longs to be like them, but only wishes

for their longevity, not their isolation. He then explains the reason for his wish: he wants

more time to spend with his love, lay his head on her chest, and listen to the soft lullaby

of her breath. This poem is used in the term paper because it uses symbols, such as,

“[b]right star,” “stedfast,” and “still unchangeable” to describe how the sublime

“transports us with wonder.”

Kennedy, X.J., et. al. Handbook of Literary Terms: Literature Language Theory. Third Edition,

2013, pp. 67, 92, 167. The Handbook of Literary Terms contains several literary devices

and definitions, such as euphony, imagery, and symbol. The Handbook of Literary Terms

is used in the term paper because it helps show how the poets marched towards the

sublime.

Longinus, Cassius. On the Sublime. Murray, pp. 114, 133,158. The author of this treatise is

expressing her insights on the sublime. She gives a brief history of those that have

pondered the same idea before she gives her own opinion. She writes that the sublime’s

purpose is to move the audience with wonder. She goes on to explain that there are

different ways to achieve the sublime and that a writer can reach greatness by following

these five steps: they must have a noble mind, they must possess inspired emotion, have

an artistic eye, use noble diction, and master elevated word-arrangement. This treatise is

used in the term paper because it explains how the sublime can “transport us with

wonder,” how it inspires the imagination with “phantasia,” and its “grand and

harmonious” style will captivate both poets and readers.

Murray, Penelope, translator and editor. Classical Literary Criticism. Penguin Classics, 2004.

This book is an anthology containing many classical authors. The introduction is written

by Murray. In it, she discusses the different styles, philosophies, writings, the authors,

and how they influence writers today. This book is used in the term paper because it

features Cassius Longinus’ treatise On the Sublime.

Velde, Paul. “Fear of the Sublime.” The Antioch Review, 68.2, spring 2010, p. 225. This article

speaks about how the sublime is interpreted by various writers and poets. The author

writes about the classical opinion of the sublime and says that its power resides in order.

He continues by writing that it insights amazement in the reader with its imagery.

Writings that achieve the sublime will outshine all else because it drowns the ordinary in

with its supreme brilliance. Finally, he writes that the sublime has begun to change as a

new generation of writers take the stage. They write within the structure of the sublime,

but the emotion that drives them is different from that of the classical poets.

This article was used in the term paper because it gives a broader insight into the sublime

and how its “inexplicable splendor” influences poets.

Wordsworth, William. “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud.” Gwynn, 2014, pp. 102-103. The poet

writes about a time where he feels alone while wandering aimlessly in his thoughts, and

then, he comes across a field of flowers, and it lifts his spirit. The flowers are as

numerous as the stars and seem to go on forever. They stand on a shore, swaying in the

wind, and their cheerful faces outshine the glimmering waves. Their joy is a gift that the

poet treasures, for when he feels lonely, he looks back on that day, and his soul fills with

happiness. This poem is used in the term paper because it shows how the “phantasia” of

the sublime is found in imagery like “golden daffodils” and “fluttering and dancing in the

breeze.”

Nicole Huebert

Professor Dominguez

English 1A, Monday & Wednesday, 10:00AM-11:50AM

September 11, 2017

Essay One: Through the Muck and the Mire

In Frederick Douglass’ “Learning to Read and Write,” four traits that inspired him to read

and write were motivation, ambition, fear, and courage. Through other people’s “irresponsible

power,” he was determined to reshape his future. Another trait that helped Douglass learn to read

and write was a “want of utterance” or a desire to give life to his thoughts. Furthermore, his

situation was “ever present to torment” him, and the dread of his future inspired him towards a

new life. Finally, he had the bravery to strive towards “something of importance” that would

change the trajectory of not only his life but of many to follow him.

In Frederick Douglass’ essay, one trait that inspired him to learn to read and write was

motivation because of the “irresponsible power” of his masters. Slavery was the only life that

Frederick Douglass knew; he was born into slavery. He was separated from his mother at birth,

which meant he had to look out for himself. The family that owned him did not send him to

school because they knew he would learn to fight back. So instead of exposing Douglass to the

world, he was treated like an animal. Douglass states, “It was at least necessary for her to have

some training in the exercise of irresponsible power, to make her equal to the task of treating me

as though I were a brute” (107). Motivation was one trait that inspired Douglass to learn to read

and write. The oppression and mistreatment that held Douglass captive were the very things that

inspired him to rid himself of that life. It was his masters’ “irresponsible power” that prompted

him to learn the power of words. If stupidity could bind him to slavery, then words might

catapult him towards freedom. Although he was born into a toxic environment, Douglass was

motivated to leave this lifestyle behind. Through adversity, the true desire of his heart was

displayed; even without the promise of freedom, Douglass was a person who wanted to better

himself. Douglass showed motivation that derived from self-preservation that would later

blossom into a desire to share his words with other people.

Another trait that Douglass possessed was the ambition to nurture his mind, heart, and

soul, which inspired him to learn to read and write through his “want of utterance.” Douglass

studied in secret. He feared his masters’ reaction if they found him trying to read or write.

Because he wanted to take lessons from neighborhood boys, he worked faster and harder at his

chores so that he had extra time. He traded the needs of his body for the needs of his mind by

offering bread to the boys who taught him the way of words. Douglass said, “They gave tongue

to interesting thoughts of my own soul, which had frequently flashed through my mind, and died

away for want of utterance” (108). Douglass’s ambition to express himself could only be

actualized by learning to read and write. The more words Douglass learned, the more he

understood and expressed the longings tormenting his spirit. His “want of utterance” gave color

to the ideas that were divided by black and white in his mind. He became the pupil of words, and

the world became his classroom. Douglass gave food to white boys. He humbled himself so that

he could learn from the same people whose forefathers had promoted the enslavement of his

people. Douglass sought an education with tenacity, for he knew it would be his ticket to a life

once dreamed. Douglass’ ambition inflicted change that catapulted him forward. He was not

content trapped in the bondage of his enslavement.

Because the conditions of his life were “ever present to torment” him, fear inspired him

to learn to read and write. After learning to read, Douglass read several works on slavery and

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abolitionists, and he began to realize the stark contrast of enslavement and freedom. A deep hate

rose up within him towards those who had robbed his people of home and freedom. With this

new-found knowledge and understanding, he loathed not only his master but also himself for

being a slave. Douglass wished to be anything but a slave because the knowledge of freedom

while being enslaved was “torturous.” Douglass said, “Freedom now appeared to disappear no

more forever. It was heard in every sound, and seen in everything. It was ever present to torment

me with a sense of my wretched condition” (109). This trait of fear propelled him into a spiraling

need to learn to read and write. Douglass was taunted by the elusiveness of freedom, and the fear

of being a slave forever began to eat at him. The idea that he would be a slave forever was “ever

present to torment” him while he read about the possibilities of freedom. He was trapped inside a

glass castle of oppression as he looked out onto a world that only saw him as an animal. He felt

enslaved by his body, especially his mind. What once was going to set him free now ensnared

him in truth because he saw the lies of bondage all around him. Douglass learned quickly that in

the life of a slave he would be destined towards complacency if he didn’t strive towards freedom.

The final trait that inspired Douglass to learn to read and write was his courage to fight

against slavery and towards “something of importance.” The illusion of freedom haunted

Douglass day in and day out. The only thing that kept him going was the fleeting idea of

freedom. He began to learn what abolition meant, and from that he began to hope for a future far

from his shackles and chains. Then, Douglass read about a slave escaping from his oppressive

master. Douglass states, “From this time I understood the words abolition and abolitionist, and

always drew near when that word was spoken, expecting to hear something of importance to

myself and fellow-slaves” (110). Despite the oppression Douglass experienced from sunup until

sundown, Douglass found the courage to learn to read and write. Freedom was not free to those

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bound to a life of slavery; however, Douglass wanted not only to be free but to use his freedom

for the sake of others. His passion for the words “abolition and abolitionist” would shape the

trajectory of his life forever and push him towards “something of importance.” Douglass gained

courage through the abolitionists and runaway slaves that preceded him. In a time period where

freedom could cost Douglass his life, he still dreamed about his own chair and his own desk. It

was his courage and tenacity to pursue what he was not allowed to do that set him apart.

Douglass’ courage to not remain complacent was what helped inspire him to learn to read and

write. Each time Douglass learned a new word, his courage grew, and each time his courage

grew, the chains between his wrists disappeared one link at a time.

In Frederick Douglass’ “Learning to Read and Write,” four traits that inspired him to read

and write were motivation, ambition, fear, and courage. Due to his masters’ “irresponsible

power,” Douglass was motivated to learn to read and write to escape the captivity of his life.

Even though it would be hard, his “want of utterance” gave him the ambition to give meaning

and life to the words of his soul. Slavery was “ever present to torment” him, and from that fear

he was determined to leave his life behind no matter the costs. He had the courage to pursue

“something of importance” in a time that muffled the voices of slaves. From the oppression of

slavery, Frederick Douglass fought through the muck and the mire of bondage towards freedom

by learning to read and write.

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Gabriella Quijano

Professor David Dominguez

English 1A T/TH 10:00-11:50

6 April 2017

Term Paper: Coyotes in Search of a Home

Boyle said, “And in the future: no apartment, no shops, no restaurants, no toys and blankets and

diapers for her baby. Her mind raced ahead and back again, and then she thought of the woods,

of the canyon, of that shitpile of sticks, and she wanted to die” (234-235).

The United States is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants crossing the

Mexican/American border because of crime, harassment, lack of proper health care, unnecessary

death, eradication of human rights, and morality of Border Patrol officers. In “The Tortilla

Curtain” by T.C. Boyle, he shows immigrants as victims like when America was raped in the

middle of the woods by “dirty fingers.” Immigrants are also antagonized and sought out like

“coyotes.” Because America was forced to have her child in the wilderness and used a “gatita” as

her midwife, the U.S. must help undocumented immigrants on moral grounds because they don’t

have access to hospitals without being deported. The “white hand” represents the death of

immigrants and their children. According to Hard Boundaries, “Human Rights and the

Undocumented Immigrant” by Martha Scarppellino, immigrants need help because they do not

deserve to have their “basic rights” taken away. Finally, in “Deaths in the Desert: The Human

Rights Crisis on the U.S.–Mexico Border” by David K. Androff and Kayoko Y. Tavassoli, the

detained immigrants must “[beg] for water.”

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The United States has the moral obligation to help illegal immigrants who cross the

Mexican/American border because they are often victims of crime, which is represented through

“dirty fingers.” Cándido finds América at a grocery store spending her first paycheck on food

that they desperately need: When they’re done, they hike to their camp and spend an intimate

night feeding each other and making love. The next morning, América and Cándido look for

work together, and while América finds work, Cándido struggles because of his injuries. At the

end of the day, she goes home and waits for her husband, but, instead, she finds two unfamiliar

men waiting for her. Boyle says, “There, in the quickening night, with his dirty fingers inside her

as if they belonged there and the Indian waiting his turn, he stopped to put a stick of gum in his

mouth and casually drop the wrapper on the exposed skin of her back, no more concerned than if

he were sitting on a stool in a bar” (141-142). Being a victim of crime is a reason the United

States is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants who cross the Mexican/American Border.

The rapists have no empathy or guilt for the woman whose life they have poisoned. The concrete

image of “dirty fingers” represents the danger that immigrants are susceptible to. Protection is a

fundamental pillar of survival. Without protection, immigrants will be raped with “dirty fingers”

and murdered without an ounce of guilt. The Americans who do have protection have a moral

obligation to help those without, and they must be able to stand up against the hundreds of

thousands of “dirty fingers” that stalk the innocent in the darkness of night or the light of day.

Another reason the U.S. needs to help undocumented immigrants is bombardment.

The “coyote” represents the continuous harassment illegal immigrants face every day,

which is why the United States has a moral obligation to help them. Cándido has a flashback of

his time before América; he remembers coming to the United States, making great money, and

sending it back home. Meanwhile, América works for a wealthy man who makes her clean with

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extremely potent bleach. When they both arrive at the camp, América tells her husband about the

rapists taking only her money. Then, she lets her mind drift in order to take away her pain. Boyle

says, “She looked at the coyote so long and so hard that she began to hallucinate, to imagine

herself inside those eyes looking out, to know that men were her enemies—men in uniform, men

with their hats reversed, men with fat bloated hands and fat bloated necks, men with traps and

guns and poisoned bait—and she saw the den full of pups and the hills shrunk to nothing under

the hot quick quadrupedal gait” (179). The harassment that plagues illegal immigrants’ lives

every day requires the United States to act out of moral obligation. América feels as if she is a

dog who is hunted and bombarded and sought out with no protection. The “coyote,” which

symbolizes immigrants, is constantly hunted and forced to live as a victimized outsider when it is

just trying to survive and provide for its family. The men pursue América and her unborn pup,

wait long hours in the night, and pounce when she least expects it. When they’re done the

hunters reap the rewards of their prize. The inability to remain strong is another reason the U.S.

must help the undocumented immigrants.

Another reason the United States is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants who

cross the Mexican/American border is the lack of proper health care shown through the use of

the “gatita.” América is angry at Cándido because they are in a terrible situation: Cándido has

deprived América of a true American Dream with picket fences, a clean shower, and a clean

house. Cándido attempts to make amends by cooking a turkey that he bought from a local

supermarket; instead, he starts a wildfire that spreads throughout the woods. While running from

the fire, Cándido stumbles upon the Arroyo Blanco Estates, and he creates a makeshift shelter

with the items he finds laying around. América goes into labor as Cándido is creating the shed.

Boyle says, “She held out her hand, and then clenched her fist with the pain of a contraction, and

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the cat stayed with her. ‘Gatita,’ she whispered to the arching back and blue luminous eyes,

‘you’re the one. You’re the saint. You will be my midwife’” (283). The United States is morally

obligated to help the undocumented because of the lack of health care. América is forced to birth

her child alongside a dirty cat. The “gatita” represents the terrible situations that they are in; they

made a shack out of items they found, she is on the dirt floor giving birth, and a dirty cat comes

with disease and filth. If illegal immigrants were to have access to healthcare, América would

have been able to have beautiful Socorro in a clean, white hospital bed with trained medical

attention. Instead, she has her newborn in the dirt with the “gatita,” the germs, and no medical

aid for Socorro. Loss is another reason the U.S. is morally obligated to help immigrants.

The U.S. is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants who cross the

Mexican/American border due to unnecessary death, which is represented through “white hand.”

Cándido finds his makeshift shed and tells América about his confrontation with Delaney. As

América tells her husband about her fear of her daughter’s blindness, Delaney finds the shed and

confronts them with a gun. Delaney tries to make sense of the situation América and Cándido are

in when a mudslide comes in and takes them away. When the mudslide occurs, Cándido tries to

find his wife and child, but he finds only his wife. Boyle says, “But when she saw the white face

surge up out of the black swirl of the current and the white hand grasping at the tiles, he reached

down and took hold of it” (355). The U.S. has the moral obligation to help illegal immigrants

who cross the border because of unnecessary death. Cándido, who has just realized his newborn

baby died, reaches out towards the person who tried to kill him to help him out of the mud and

water. The “white hand” represents the racism and bigotry of Americans that leads to hate crimes

and deaths of illegal immigrants. Hate crimes are often committed by group of people who are

fearful of another group of people (often a minority). Delaney’s “white hand” that pointed the

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gun at Cándido and his family was fearful for his own family’s safety. Although Socorro’s death

was not Delaney’s fault, had the mudslide not happened, it is probable that Delaney would have

hurt or killed Cándido. These hate crimes continue to plague the United States, and assault or

murder is inevitable for an undocumented immigrant. The U.S. is morally obligated to help

immigrants because their civil liberties are in danger.

The eradication of human rights is another reason the United States is morally obligated

to help illegal immigrants who cross the Mexican/American border; this is represented through

“human rights.” Hard and soft boundaries and how some countries would use them are defined in

the beginning of the article. It reviews the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and

the prevention of abuses of the citizens’ right by the government. It also discusses asylum and

the obligation for the receiving country to allow application for asylum. Lastly, it sheds light

upon the reason for application for asylum; many are fleeing from economic hardships rather

than political persecution. Scarpellino says, “Simply by virtue of being human, people have basic

rights that cannot be ethically denied to them” (5). Immigrants’ rights must not be denied by the

U.S. government: they have the moral obligation to uphold these rights. By being born, people

have “basic rights” that cannot be taken away. The “rights” represents the millions of people who

are risking their entire lives to come to a place that is better. They are leaving their homes,

families, and, perhaps, children. These immigrants are people who want more than what they

were getting, and the U.S., who was founded by immigrants, must uphold their moral obligation

to give the undocumented their “basic rights.” Another reason the U.S. should help immigrants is

because of the decisions of Border Control officers.

The immigrants and their families who “begged for water” are the last reason the United

States is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants who cross the Mexican/ American border.

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The article begins with statistics of undocumented immigrants, who represent approximately 4

percent of the U.S. population. It also talks about Article 13 of the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights, which states that every person “has the right to freedom of movement.” Deaths

while immigrating to another country are not uncommon, and this article criticizes the militant

strategies of the United States Border Control. Seeing this crisis, many humanitarian groups have

assembled to provide aid and share knowledge of rights to illegal immigrants. Androff and

Tavassoli say, “For example, when held overnight without food or water, one woman begged for

water for her children, ages six and nine; Border Patrol officers drank in front of them and

refused to provide any water (NMM, 2008)” (5). The U.S. needs to help those who are deprived

when they cross the Mexican/American border. Families are robbed of the most fundamental

component of life. Immigrants already have enough stress on their minds with moving, but to be

denied water is heinous, especially when they must “[beg] for it.” The Border Patrol needs to

follow their moral compass because these immigrants are people attempting to better their lives,

and instead of letting the detained “[beg] for water,” the Border Patrol must provide care.

Although the immigrants are detained, the Border Patrol has no right to treat them like animals:

those in prison get better treatment—they’ve never “begged for water.”

The United States is morally obligated to help illegal immigrants crossing the Mexican

Border because of crime, harassment, lack of proper health care, unnecessary death, eradication

of human rights, and the morality of Border Patrol officers. “[D]irty fingers” represent the

dangers that immigrants face constantly. The “coyote” personifies immigrants and the

harassment they go through every day. América’s “gatita” proved the need for proper health care

for undocumented immigrants. Unnecessary death is represented through the use of the “white

hand.” People have “basic rights” that cannot be taken away from them. Immigrants’ rights are

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taken away when they have to “[beg] for water” to give to their children. Undocumented

immigrants and their families come here to seek a better life for their children, but they find that

they are often ridiculed, harassed, and hunted like “coyotes”—but, immigrants are people too,

and the United States and its people must do everything in their power to help their fellow

brothers and sisters looking for a home.

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Annotated Bibliography

Androff, David K and Tavassoli, Kyoko Y. “Deaths in the Desert: The Human Rights Crisis in

the U.S.—Mexico Border.” Vol. 27, Issue 2, April 2012, p. 166. EBSCOhost,

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.exporxy.scccd.e du/ehost/deta il?vid=5&sid=4cbb0ae5-

0aed04b5109d2f69b9a4cacfb0%40sessoinmgr103&hid=111&bdsts-

JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3Qt bG12ZQ%3d%3d#AN=79818131&db-a9h. This article begins

with statistics of migration patterns seen from the 1990’s. It continues with the

humanitarian effort for the rights of illegal immigrants and their families. It also discusses

the U.S. Border Control and their tactics, including search-and-rescues for migrants in

distress. Lastly, this article explains the human rights stripped away from immigrants

caught by Border Patrol and the ethicality of their actions. This article relates to the term

paper by discussing the humanitarian effort for illegal immigrants and the dangers of

crossing the border. It supports the thesis but showing the terrors of immigration and

provides evidence for U.S. intervention on moral grounds.

Boyle, T.C. The Tortilla Curtain. Penguin Books, 1995, pp. 142, 179, 283, 352. In this novel,

T.C. Boyle dissects the opposing lifestyles of an illegal immigrant couple and an

American couple. The immigrant couple camps in the bottom of the Topanga Canyon and

struggle to survive while the American couple and their son live in a gated community.

Their lives intersect in the beginning of the novel and continue to intersect throughout,

and the themes include, but are not limited to, xenophobia, racism, apathy, empathy,

death, poverty, and illegal immigration. The novel relates to this term paper by providing

empathetic and symbolic direct quotations that support the thesis. They support the main

argument that the United States has a moral obligation to help illegal immigrants.

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Scarpellino, Martha. “‘Corriendo’: Hard Boundaries, Human Rights and the Undocumented

Immigrant.” Geopolitics, vol. 12, no. 2, Summer2007, pp. 330-349. EBSCOhost,

doi:10.1080/14650040601169048. Scarpellino’s argument begins by clarifying the

distinctions between hard and soft boundaries that countries use. She continues by

questioning if these hard boundaries are ethical. The legitimacy of immigrants’ rights

shown by Border Patrol officers are called into question as well. Lastly, real, personal

recounts of illegally crossing the border are told under pseudonyms. The article relates to

the term paper by giving real accounts and traumas of “los correados,” the runners

crossing the border. This personalizes the experience for the reader and allows them to

empathize with illegal immigrants.

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Veronica Vela

Instructor Dominguez

English 125, MW, 10:00

9 March 2016

Essay Four: Dancing to Violins

In “On Being a Cripple” by Nancy Mairs, optimism, courage, persistence, and faith were

four attributes that encouraged her to dance through life. After being diagnosed with multiple

sclerosis, God blessed Nancy Mairs with the “gift” of hope. As challenges arose, Mairs’ fortitude

helped her overcome the need to “please.” Though her sickness brought doubt in her confidence,

she stayed tenacious, for she knew she was “not a disease.” Finally, her belief in God moved her

to dance—“Why not?” she asked herself.

Mairs’ optimism was an attribute, a “gift,” that inspired her to dance through life. In the

beginning of the essay, Mairs walked with her confidence beaming, for she was ready to bless

the world with her story. With many ways to define her disease, she refused to hide who she had

become. Though diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, Mairs didn’t feel less or better than anyone.

Society labeled her, but she wasn’t a category: she was a person for whom God had plans. Mairs

said, “For almost a week, until the negative results were in, I thought that I was going to die right

away. Every day for the past nearly ten years, then, has been a kind of gift. I accept all gifts”

(187). Optimism was an attribute helping her dance through life. Devastating news kept her on

her toes for seven days; after test results proved cancer wasn’t poisoning her veins, Mairs was

blessed with time. “Dying right away” was a fear to big to grasp, and for those seven days death

haunted her every thought. Being diagnosed with MS is life altering, but as Mairs explained in

this direct quotation she saw it as a “gift.” It takes a strong human being to find beauty in a

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tragedy, but Mairs did so eloquently as she unwrapped her “gift” of time. Life blew softly as a

flute and gave her a “gift”: more time to dance. With each step, fortitude warmed her soul.

Mairs stopped trying to “please” everybody, which showed the attribute of courage; as a

result, she danced through life more freely. Some days she wanted to give up, but Mairs pushed

until she was exhausted. She found humor in her awkwardness, but frustration as her body failed

due to MS. As a teacher, she tried not to let her weaknesses show—Mairs became an inspiration

to some of her students, but others found it difficult to comprehend a disease they knew so little

about. Her family stood by her side becoming united when her bones felt weak. Mairs said,

“Along with this fear that people are secretly accepting shoddy goods comes a relentless pressure

to please—to prove myself worth the burdens I impose, I guess, or to build a substantial account

of good will against which I may write drafts in times of need” (190). Mairs found her purpose

through her courage, an attribute helping her dance through life. In this direct quotation, Mairs is

filled with discouragement, for she hated the pity others expressed. In her “fear,” she found

courage, and she was able to overcome the expectations of a cripple. The reader hears the battle

cry of a dancing warrior, who no longer felt “a relentless pressure to please.” As she swiftly

moved, no longer needing to “please,” her hips swayed with confidence. Like a dancer she must

be vulnerable to allow strength to take possession of her body. As she glided across the dance

floor, she dared to move—in her head, she heard the pounding beat of a drum.

Mairs’s persistence, as soothing as the strings of violins, was an attribute reminding her

she was “not a disease,” and it helped her dance through life. As she tried to keep her composure,

there were days she wanted to scream out in frustration. Mairs found it difficult to grow up in a

world where women are told how to dress, how to stay thin, how to be happy, how to be perfect.

As a teen she struggled, just like most young ladies, with portraying the perfect image of an

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American woman. As she got older, she realized she could be anything, and there was no need

for self pity. Mairs said, “What I hate is not me but a disease. I am not a disease. And a disease is

not—at least not singlehandedly—going to determine who I am though at first it seemed to be

going to” (191-192). Much like the melodies of a violin Mairs’ persistence was an attribute

guiding her dance through life. In this direct quotation, Mairs explains that her illness may be a

weakness, but her sickness would not define her. For Mairs being diagnosed with MS was like

wearing a ten pound sign with the word “disease” written in bold. Her persistence is what got her

up when she fell and what kept her in motion when her bones weakened. She wore the armor of a

dancing warrior—she fought graciously to prove to the world she wasn’t dead yet. With patience

in her heart, she allowed devotion to take control of her body.

Mairs’ faith was an attribute felt in her every move; after all, “Why not?” let it guide her

dance through life. Fighting with MS inspired Mairs to not lay old and fragile while waiting for a

cure. She plans on enjoying her life. Knowing there is no cure to MS, she refused to put hope in

her doctors. She has learned to live through her struggles and for that she is grateful. Mairs said,

“I’d take a cure I just don’t need one. A friend who also has MS startled me once by asking, ‘Do

you ever say to yourself, ‘Why me, Lord?’ ‘No, Michael, I don’t,’ I told him, ‘because whenever

I try, the only response I can think of is ‘Why not?’” (194). Mairs’ heart glowed with faith

becoming the last attribute that helped her dance through life. She doesn’t blame her maker; what

is will be, and she will prosper. “Why not” rejoice in the happiness and good life the Lord has

given her. Mairs is an inspiration; she is grateful for her blessings. Her faith guides her to say

“Why not?,” which is both astonishing and heroic. Mairs found the strength to push through the

fatigue, the mood changes, the numbness, and the pain in her arms and legs until finding her

step—she danced to the silent sounds of hope.

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In “On Being a Cripple” by Nancy Mairs, optimism, courage, persistence, and faith were

four attributes that encouraged her dance through life. For Nancy Mairs, hope was a “gift” that

inspired her to overcome her weaknesses. With her fortitude, she overcame the need “to please.”

Mairs became tenacious: she was ill, but she wasn’t a “disease.” She devoted herself to God, and

“Why not?”—she was alive. Mairs strutted onto a moonlit dance floor, and as her dress flowed in

a summer night’s breeze, sounds of violins strummed in her head—she began to hum a hymn,

written by God, and as the crickets chirped along, she danced.

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CHAPTER TEN: Commonly Confused Words

I. Commonly Confused Words

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ONE: Commonly Confused Words

Writers often misuse the words and phrases included in this chapter. If an student makes several errors involving these words and

phrases, there writing will loose authority as they’re sentences glide across sheets of stationery laying on the table. However, if

students memorize this list they will improve their vocabulary and become more sophisticated writers.

o A is used before a consonant sound. An is used before a vowel sound. If a word begins with h but the h is silent, the

word begins with a vowel sound, so use an (an hour but a hospital). Some words that begin with u actually begin with a

consonant sound so use a (a university but an uncle). For abbreviations and acronyms, use an if they begin with a

vowel sound (an EKG).4

o A lot is “a quantity; many of something.” Alot is not correct. Allot means “to divide or portion out.”1

o A part means “a portion, piece, element.” Apart means “separate.”2

o Accent is “a pronunciation common to a region.” Ascent is “the act of rising or climbing.” Assent is “consent,

agreement.”1

o Accept means “to receive.” Except means “with the exclusion of.”1

o Adapt means “to adjust.” Adopt means “to take as one’s own.”4

o Adverse means “unfavorable.” Averse means “to oppose.”1

o Advice means “recommendation (noun).” Advise means “to recommend (verb).”1

o Affect means “to influence (verb)”; “emotional response (noun)”. Effect means “result (noun)”; “to cause (verb).”1

o Aisle is “a space between rows.” Isle is “an island.”1

o Allude means “to make indirect reference to.” Elude means “to avoid.”1

o Allusion is “an indirect reference.” Illusion is a “false idea, misleading appearance.”1

o Along means “moving or extending horizontally.” A long refers to “something of great length.”3

o Aloud means “out loud.” Allowed means “permitted.”3

o Already means “by this time.” All ready means “fully prepared.”1

o Alright is incorrect writing. All right is standard English.4

o Altar is a “sacred platform or place.” To alter is “to change.”1

o Altogether means “thoroughly.” All together means “everyone/ everything in one place.”1

o Amoral means “not concerned with right or wrong.” Immoral means “not following accepted moral standards.”3

o Amount is “used with quantities that cannot be counted.” Number is “used with quantities that can be counted.”4

o Angel is “a supernatural being, good person.” Angle is “a shape made by joining two straight lines.”1

o Any one refers to “a particular person or thing in a group.” (Any one of the articles I read will support my thesis).4

o Anybody and anyone refer to “nonspecific people.” (Anybody/ anyone can go on the trip).4

o Appraise means “to assess.” Apprise means “to inform someone.”3

o Are is “the plural form of to be.” Our is “the plural form of my .”1

o Assistance refers to “help.”1 Assistants refers to “helpers.”1

o Back up means to “move an object.” Backup refers to “a duplicate of electronically stored data (noun) or the process of

creating it, to back up, (verb).”4

o Bare is “nude, unadorned.” Bear is “to carry; an animal.”1

o Bated in the phrase “with bated breath” means “in great suspense.” Baited means “with bait attached or inserted.”3

o Berth is “the bunk in a ship, train, etc.” Birth is “the emergence of a baby from the womb.”3

o Beside is “to be close to; next to.” Besides means “except for; in addition.”1

o Boar is “a wild male pig.” Bore is “to drill a hole through something.”1

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o Board is “a piece of wood.” Bored is “to be uninterested.”1

o Born means “brought into life.” Borne is “the past participle of to bear (carry).”1

o Bough is “a branch of a tree.” Bow means “to bend the head; the front of a ship.”3

o Brake is “a device for stopping.” Break means “to destroy; make into pieces.”1

o Breach is to “break through, or break a rule; a gap.” Breech is “the back part of a gun barrel.”3

o Breath refers to “the air taken in.” Breathe means “to take in air.”1

o Bring is used “when an object is being transported toward someone.” Take is used “when something is being carried

away from someone.”4

o Buy means “to purchase.” By is “next to; through the agency of.”1

o Can refers to “ability.” May refers to “permission.”4

o Canvas is “heavy cloth.” Canvass means “to take a survey; a survey.”1

o Capital means “punishable by death; capital letter; major city; money, property, business.” Capitol is “a government

building.”1

o Censure is “to criticize strongly.” Censor is “to ban parts of a book or film; a person who does this.”3

o Cereal is “a grass producing an edible grain; a breakfast food made from grains.” Serial means happening in a series.”3

o Choose means “to pick.” Chose is “the past tense of to choose.”1

o Chord is “a group of musical notes.” Cord is “a length of string.”3

o Climactic means “forming a climax.” Climatic relates to “climate.”3

o Clothes refers to “garments.” Cloths are “pieces of fabric.”1

o Coarse means “rough.” Course is “a path; a series of lectures, a class.”1

o Complacent means “smug and self-satisfied.” Complaisant means “willing to please.”3

o Complement is “something that completes.” Compliment is “a praise, flattery.”1

o Conscience refers to “a sense of morality.” Conscious means “awake, aware.”1

o Continual means “repeated frequently.” Continuous means “repeated without interruption.”4

o Corps is “a regulated group.” Corpse is “a dead body.”1

o Council is “a governing body.” Counsel means “advice; to give advice.”1

o Cue is “a signal for action; a wooden rod.” Queue is “a line of people, vehicles, other objects.”3

o Dairy is a “place where milk products are processed.” A diary is “a personal journal.”1

o Defuse is to “make a situation less tense.” Diffuse means “to spread over a wide area.”3

o Descent is “a downward movement.” Dissent is “a disagreement.”1

o Dessert is “the final sweet course in a meal.” Desert means “to abandon; dry, sandy area.”1

o Device is “a plan; a tool or utensil.” Devise means “to create.”1

o Die means “to lose life; one of a pair of dice.” Dye means “to change or add color”; dyeing means “changing or adding

color.” Dying means losing life.1

o Discreet is “modest, prudent behavior.” Discrete is “a separate thing, distinct.”1

o Disinterested means “impartial.” Uninterested means “not interested.”3

o Do is a verb indicating “performance or execution of a task.” Dew refers to “water droplets condensed from air.” Due

means “as a result of; due on a specific date.”1

o Dominant is “an adjective that means commanding, controlling.” Dominate is a verb that means “to control.”1

o Dual refers to “having two parts.” Duel is “a fight or contest between two people.”3

o Elicit means “to draw out.” Illicit means “illegal, forbidden.”1

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o Emigrate from means “to leave a country to settle somewhere else.” Immigrate to means “to enter a country to reside

there.”4

o Eminent means “prominent.” Imminent means “about to happen.”1

o Ensure means “to make sure, protect.” Insure means “to give or get insurance on.”2

o Envelop is “to surround.” Envelope is “a container for a letter.”1

o Every one refers to “individual people or things in a group.” (Every one in the class can go on the trip).4

o Everybody and everyone refer to “nonspecific people or things.” (Everybody can go on the trip).4

o Everyday means “routine, commonplace, ordinary.” Every day/ each day means successive days.”1

o Exercise is “physical activity; to do physical activity.” Exorcise is “to drive out an evil spirit.”3

o Fair means “light skinned; just, honest; a carnival.” Fare refers to “money for transportation; food.”1

o Farther means “at a greater (measurable) distance.” Further means “in greater (non-measurable) distance.”1

o Fewer is “used if things can be counted.” Less is “used if things cannot be counted.”4

o Flour refers to “the powdery substance ground from grain.” Flower refers to “the petals and pistils of a plant.”2

o Forbear means to “refrain.” Forebear is “an ancestor.”3

o Foreword is an “introduction to a book.” Forward means “onwards, ahead.”3

o Formally means “conventionally, with ceremony.” Formerly means “previously.”1

o Forth means “to go forward.” Fourth is “the number four in a list.”1

o Good means “having proper qualities, beneficial, of moral excellence” (adjective). Well means “in a pleasing, good, or

right way, prosperously (adverb).”2

o Gorilla is “an animal in the ape family.” Guerrilla is “a soldier specializing in surprise attacks.”1

o Grate means “to make into particles by scraping.” Great means “much larger, more, better than average.”2

o Grisly means “gruesome, revolting.” Grizzly is “a type of bear.”3

o Hear means “to sense sound by ear.” Here means “in this place.”1

o Heard is “the past tense of to hear.” Herd is “a group of animals.”1

o Hoard is “a hidden fund or supply, a cache.” Horde is “a large group or crowd, swarm.”1

o Hole is “an opening.” Whole refers to “complete; an entire thing.”1

o Human refers to “the species homo sapiens.” Humane means “compassionate.”1

o Imply means “to suggest indirectly. Infer means to draw a conclusion.”3

o Its is “the possessive form of it.” It’s is “the contraction for it is.”1

o Knew is the “past tense of know.” New means “fresh, not yet old.”1

o Know means “to comprehend.” No means “negative.”1

o Later means “after a time.” Latter means “second one of two things.”1

o Lead is “a heavy metal substance; to guide.” Led is “past tense of to leave.”1

o Lessen means “to decrease.” Lesson refers to “something learned and/or taught.”1

o Lie (lie, lay, lain, lying) means “to recline or rest.” Lay (lay, laid, laid, laying) “means to set down.”4 Lie “does not

require a direct object” (The blanket lies on the bed). Lay “requires a direct object” (Lay the blanket on the bed).4

o Lightning is “storm-related electricity.” Lightening means “making lighter.”1

o Loath means “reluctant, unwilling.” Loathe means “to hate.”3

o Loose means “unbound, not tightly fastened.” Lose means “to misplace.”1

o Mail refers to “letters, email, postal system; mesh armor.” Male refers to “the sex that fertilizes the ovum; of like or for

men.”2

o Maybe means “perhaps.” May be means “might be.”1

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o Meat refers to “animal flesh.” Meet is “to encounter.”1

o Metal is “a hard organic substance.” Medal is “a flat disk stamped with a design.”1

o Mettle refers to “courage, spirit, energy.”1

o Miner is “a worker in a mine.” Minor is “an underage person; less important.”1

o Moral means “distinguishing right from wrong; lesson of a fable or story.” Morale is “attitude or outlook usually of a

group.”1

o Palate is “the roof of the mouth.” Palette is “a board for mixing colors.”3

o Passed is “the past tense of to pass.” Past means “at a previous time.”1

o Patience means “putting up with annoyances.” Patients are “people under medical care.”1

o Peace is “the absence of war.” Piece is “a part of a whole; musical arrangement.”1

o Peak refers to “a point, pinnacle, maximum.” Peek means “to peer through or look furtively.” Pique is “a fit of

resentment, feeling of wounded vanity.”1

o Pedal is “the foot lever of a bicycle or car.” Petal is “a flower segment.” Peddle is “to sell.”1

o Personal means “intimate; owned by a person.” Personnel refers to “employees.”1

o Plain is “simple, unadorned.” Plane means “to shave wood; aircraft (noun).”1

o Pole is “a long, slender piece of wood.” Poll is “a counting of voters, recorded votes, voting place; also means to

survey voters (verb).”3

o Pour means to “flow or cause to flow.” Pore is “a tiny opening; to study something closely.”3

o Precede means “to come before.” Proceed means “to continue.”1

o Prescribe means “to authorize the use of medicine; to order authoritatively.” Proscribe means “to officially forbid

something.”3

o Presence refers to “attendance; being at hand.” Presents “refer to gifts.”1

o Principal means “foremost; administrator of a school.” Principle is “a moral conviction, basic truth.”1

o Quiet means “silent, calm.” Quite means “very.”1

o Quotation is “a group of words cited from a second source (noun).” Quote is “the act of repeating words from a second

source (verb).”2

o Rain refers to “water drops falling; to fall like rain.” Reign means “to rule.” Rein is “a strap to control an animal (noun);

to guide or control (verb).”1

o Raise means “to lift up.” Raze means “to tear down.”1

o Rational means “having reason or understanding.” Rationale refers to “principles of opinion, beliefs.”1

o Respectfully means “with respect.” Respectively means “in that order.”1

o Reverend is “a title given to clergy; deserving respect.” Reverent means “worshipful.”1

o Right means “correct; opposite of left.” Rite is “a ritual or ceremony.” Write means “to put words on paper.”1

o Road is “a path.” Rode is “past tense of to ride.”1

o Scene is “a place of an action; segment of a play.” Seen means “viewed; past participle of to see.”1

o Sense refers to “perception, understanding.” Since refers to “measurement of past time; because.”1

o Sight is “a scene, view, picture.” Site is “a place, location.” Cite means “to document or quote.”1

o Skeptic is “a person inclined to doubt.” Septic means “infected with bacteria.”3

o Stationary means “standing still.” Stationery refers to “writing paper.”1

o Straight means “unbending.” Strait means “narrow or confining; a waterway.”1

o Suppose to is “nonstandard English and should not be used.” Supposed to is “standard English and should be used by

writers.”4

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o Taught is “the past tense of to teach.” Taut means “tight.”1

o Than means “besides.” Then means “at that time; next; if then.”1

o That is used for “restrictive clauses and refers to things or groups of people.” Which is used for “nonrestrictive clauses

and refers to things or groups of people.” (Use who to refer to individual people).4

o Their is “the possessive form of they.” There means “in that place.” They’re is “the contraction for they are.”1

o Through means “finished; into and out of.” Threw is “the past tense of to throw.”1

o To means “toward.” Too means “also; very (used to show emphasis).” Two is “the number following one.”1

o Tortuous means “full of twists; complex.” Torturous means “full of pain or suffering.”3

o Toward is “preferred over towards in standard American English.”4

o Track is “a course, road.” Tract is “a pamphlet; plot of ground.”1

o Waist refers to “the midsection of the body.” Waste refers to “discarded material; to squander.”1

o Waive means “to forgo, renounce.” Wave is “a flutter, a wave of water (noun); to move back and forth (verb).” 1

o Weak means “not strong.” Week refers to “seven consecutive calendar days.”1

o Weather is “a climatic condition. Whether means “if.”1

o Where refers to place. Were is “the past tense of to be.”1

o Which refers to “one of a group.” Witch is “a female sorcerer.”1

o Whose is the “possessive form of who.” Who’s is “the contraction for who is.”1

o Wreath is “a ring-shaped arrangement of flowers, etc.” Wreathe means “to surround or encircle.”3

o Yoke is “a wooden crosspiece for harnessing a pair of oxen.” Yolk is “the yellow center of an egg.”3

o You’re is “the contraction for you are.” Yore is “a time long past.” Your is “the possessive form of you.”1

1http://www.stlcc.edu/Student_Resources/Academic_Resources/Writing_Resources/Grammar_Handouts/commonly_confus

ed_words.pdf.

2Webster’s New World Pocket Dictionary, fourth edition.

3http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/commonly-confused-words

4A Pocket Style Manual, seventh edition.

121

CHAPTER Eleven: Grammar Terms and Their Definitions

I. Grammar Terms and Their Definitions

122

ONE: Grammar Terms and Their Definitions

Knowing the definitions of a few basic grammatical terms will help you become a better writer. If you look up at the sky in the

middle of night and don’t know the names of the planets, stars, or constellations, all you will see are scattered dots. But if a

person recognizes the different galactic bodies and knows their names, that person looks up and sees the Milky Way, Saturn, the

Big Dipper, The Little Dipper, Sagittarius, and Jupiter. If you look at a sentence and recognize it’s parts by name and can

describe each one, words will be more than scattered dots on a sheet of paper.

o Adjectives: Adjectives modify nouns. Usually, adjectives are placed before the noun they modify. Adjectives answer

specific questions: what kind of, which, and how many.

o Adverb clauses: Adverb clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions like although, because, if, unless, until, and

when.

o Adverbs: Adverbs modify adjectives, adverbs, or verbs. Adverbs usually end with –ly but sometimes they do not end

with –ly. While adjectives describe what kind of, which, and how many, adverbs describe how, when, when, and why.

o Antecedents: A noun and/or a pronoun is called an antecedent if it is referred to by a pronoun.

o Apostrophes: Add apostrophes to nouns, indefinite pronouns, and compound words to show possession. Use

apostrophes to form contractions. Use apostrophes with years to drop the first two numerals. Use the apostrophe with

plural letters.

o Appositives: An appositive names a noun.

o Capitalization: In A Pocket Style Manual, Diana Hacker says, “Capitalize names of deities, religions, religious

followers, and sacred texts; words of family relationships used as names; particular places; nationalities and their

languages, races, and tribes; educational institutions, departments, and particular courses; government departments,

organizations, and political parties; historical movements, periods, events, and documents; and trade names” (79). In

addition, she says to capitalize, “Months, holidays, and days of the week” (79) and finally, “Capitalize a title when used

as part of a proper noun but usually not when used alone (80). Capitalize the first word of a sentence (students are often

in the habit of overlooking this rule because of social media), and don’t forget to capitalize abbreviations when

appropriate. Capitalize titles of works (such as books, movies, magazines and academic journal articles). Do not

automatically capitalize all the words in a title. Capitalize major words, such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverb, and

adjectives. Do not capitalize minor words, such as articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions. Always

capitalize the first and last word of a title.

o Colons: Use the colon between two independent clauses when the second independent clause explains or summarizes

the first independent clause. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention to an appositive. The

appositive names a specific noun in the independent clause. Use the colon after an independent clause to draw attention

to a series. A series includes three items or more. Use the colon after in independent clause to draw attention to a direct

quotation. Use the colon to introduce a long quotation when following the MLA guidelines. In prose, a long quotation

includes five lines or more. In poetry, a long quotation includes four lines or more.

o Comma splices: If two independent clauses are joined with a comma that is not followed by a coordinating conjunction,

the sentence is called a comma splice. You may place a comma between independent clauses as long as the comma is

followed by a coordinating conjunction.

123

o Commas: 1) Use the comma after introductory word groups, such as subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, and

participial phrases that are followed independent clauses. 2) Use the comma with a coordinating conjunction to join

independent clauses. 3) Use the comma to join items in a series. 4) Use commas between coordinate adjectives but not

cumulative adjectives. Coordinate adjectives describe a noun or pronoun separately from one another. You know the

adjectives are coordinate if you can place the word “and” between each one and rearrange them while maintaining

fluidity and clarity. Cumulative adjectives, on the other hand, will not make sense with the word “and” between them

and cannot be rearranged. 5) Use commas to set off parenthetical information. Parenthetical information appears in the

middle of a sentence. The information is parenthetical if it can be removed without changing the meaning the sentence.

If removing the information changes the sentence’s main point or the sentence just doesn’t make sense, the information

is not parenthetical, so do not use commas. 6) Use the comma to set off nonessential information that begins with

“especially,” “such as,” “which,” “who,” “whom,” and “whose.” Nonessential information may appear in the middle or

at the end of an independent clause. If, however, removing the information changes the reader’s understanding of the

sentence’s main point, or the sentence just doesn’t make sense, the information is essential information, and you should

not use the commas. 7) Use the comma to separate sharply contrasting elements. Sharply contrasting elements are often

defined by the words “not” and “unlike.” 8) Use commas after or around conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases.

Conjunctive adverbs include also, finally, however, instead, next, still, and thus. Transitional phrases include as a

matter of fact, as a result, in addition, in fact, in other words, in the first place. 9) Use a comma after a signal phrase

introducing a short direct quotation. If the quotation is prose, it is considered short if it contains four lines or less. If the

quotation contains poetry, it is considered short if it contains three lines or less. Signal phrases contain the name of the

author or speaker and a signal word, such as said, says, believed, thinks, or thought. Many English instructors will be

satisfied if you use “said” on a consistent basis and follow it with a comma.

o Complete sentences: A complete sentence is a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

The grammatical term for a complete sentence is independent clause.

o Complex sentences: The complex sentence contains at least one subordinate clause plus exactly one independent

clause.

o Compound-complex sentences: The compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least

one subordinate clause.

o Compound sentences: The compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.

o Conjunctive adverbs: Conjunctive adverbs include, but are not limited to, also, finally, however, instead, next, still, and

thus.

o Coordinate adjectives: Coordinate adjectives describe a noun or pronoun separately from one another. You know the

adjectives are coordinate if you can place the word “and” between each one and rearrange them while maintaining

fluidity and clarity.

o Coordinating conjunctions: There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language: and, or, nor, but, for,

so, yet. Think FANBOYS.

o Cumulative adjectives: Cumulative adjectives will not make sense with the word “and” between them and cannot be

rearranged.

o Dashes: Join together independent clauses with a dash to add emphasis to the second independent clause if it contains

emotional significance or makes an especially important point.

124

o Declarative verbs: Use declarative verbs to make a statement, a claim, an assertion, or to describe a specific action.

Declarative verbs get straight to the point. When writers fill their sentences with declarative verbs, they express their

thoughts more clearly.

o Ellipsis marks: Use the ellipsis mark within a direct quotation or at the end of a quotation if you removed whole

sentences or parts of sentences from the original text to focus on a specific part. If you cut out parts of a direct

quotation, make sure it still makes sense and flows. Creative writers, such as fictions writers, poets, and nonfiction

writers, like to use the ellipsis mark to make the reader think on their own, create a cliff hanger, or to imply there is

more to come. In expository essay writing, however, avoid using the ellipsis mark in those ways: expository essay

writers should strive to express their thoughts as clearly as they possibly can.

o Fragments: Fragment is the grammatical term for an incomplete sentence.

o Helping verbs: Be, have, and do are helping verbs (be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been; has, have, had; do, does,

did). Can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would are helping verbs called modals. While writers must

sometimes use helping verbs, they often overuse them. Edit your sentences carefully so that your work is filled with

declarative verbs rather than helping verbs.

o Hyphen: 1) If you are writing, reach the end of the line, and need to break a word apart to continue on the next line,

break the word along one of the syllables and use a hyphen to show the word continues on the next line. This rule will

apply to writing by hand more often than when you are using a computer because your word processor adjusts the text

for you. 2) Use the hyphen with compound words. Remember, check a dictionary whenever you are not sure. If a

hyphen isn’t used in the dictionary, do not use it in your essay. 3) Use the hyphen to join words working together as an

adjective, but if the noun comes first, you do not need the hyphen. 4) Use the hyphen to join numbers twenty -one

through ninety-nine.

o Incomplete sentence: If a group of words does not contain a subject, a verb, or a complete thought, it is an incomplete

sentence.

o Indefinite pronouns: Indefinite pronouns include, but are not limited to, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,

everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something.

o Independent clauses: A complete sentence is a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

o Italics and underlining: Use italics to identify titles of works: academic journals and reviews, books, computer software

(MLA), databases (MLA), films, long poems, magazines, musical compositions, albums, newspapers, pamphlets, plays,

radio programs, television shows, video games, visual art, web sites (MLA). Use italics to identify foreign words in an

English sentence. Use italics to emphasize an important point. Use italics to identify letters as letters, numbers as

numbers, and words as words.

o Modals: The modals (which are a typed of helping verb) are can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and

would. While modals are sometimes necessary, declarative verbs often drive a sentence forward with greater clarity.

o Nonessential information: Nonessential information begins with “especially,” “such as,” “which,” “who,” “whom,” and

“whose.” Nonessential information may appear in the middle or at the end of an independent clause and can be

removed from a sentence without changing coherence or meaning.

o Noun equivalent: a noun equivalent is a word or group of words functioning as a noun.

o Parenthetical information: Parenthetical information appears in the middle of a sentence. The information is

parenthetical if it can be removed without changing the meaning the sentence. If removing the information changes the

sentence’s main point or the sentence just doesn’t make sense, the information is not parenthetical.

125

o Participial phrases: Participial phrases begin with a present or past tense verbal that describes a noun or pronoun in the

main part of the sentences, which is an independent clause.

o Past participles: Verbs possess (among other forms) an infinitive, a simple past tense, and a past participle form.

Students usually don’t have trouble navigating their way between the different tenses when the verbs follow basic

conjugation rules, such as walk, walked, have walked (or has walked). Sometimes, however, the simple past and the

past participle refuse to follow the rules you rely on for good writing; these are called irregular verbs, such as take,

took, and taken. Specifically, you might struggle with the past participle for two reasons: you do not know the past

participle form, or you do not add the correct modal verb.

o Prepositional phrases: Prepositional phrases begin with words include, but are not limited to, above, after, before, from,

in, on, out, over, through, and under and end with a noun or noun equivalent.

o Prepositions: According to “Prepositions,” “Prepositions are words or short phrases that identify the spatial (in space),

directional, (the direction in which something is moving), or temporal (in time) relationship of one or more people or

things to other people or things.” There are over a hundred prepositions in the English language. In A Pocket Style

Manual, Hacker says the most common prepositions are “about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at,

before, behind, below, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near,

of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, than, through, to, toward, under, unlike, until, up, with, within, and

without” (303).

o Pronoun reference and clarity : When using any pronoun, make sure the pronouns directly reference antecedents.

Pronouns like he, she, it, we, and they or indefinite pronouns like anybody, anyone, anything, or even more vague

pronouns like this, that, and which must reference antecedents clearly or the reader will be confused.

o Pronoun-antecedent agreement: Pronouns and the words they refer to (these words are called antecedents) must both be

singular or plural and clearly reference one another.

o Pronouns: Writers use pronouns in place of other nouns. The most common pronouns are he, she, it, we, and they.

There are also indefinite pronouns, such as, but not limited to, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody,

everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, somebody, someone, something.

o Quotation marks: Use quotation marks to identify short direct quotations of prose (four lines of prose or less from the

original text or three lines of poetry or less from the original text). Quotation marks should also be placed around the

titles of different types of works, such as articles, essays, poems, short stories, and songs. (For other types of works,

please see italics). Do not use quotation marks for emphasis (use italics). Do not use quotation marks around slang or

clichés. Do not use quotation marks around words used as words (use italics).

o Relative pronouns: The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that.

o Run-on sentences: There are two specific types of run-on sentences. A run-on sentence is not, for example, a sentence

that “goes on and on” nor is a run-on sentence a sentence that “needs something,” and finally, a run-on sentence is not a

sentence that “is too long.” A group of words is considered a run-on sentence if it is a comma splice or a sentence fuse.

o Semicolons: Use the semicolon to join independent clauses that are closely related. Use the semicolon to join

independent clauses if the second independent clause begins with a conjunctive adverb, such as first, also,

consequently, moreover, and finally. Use the semicolon to join independent clauses if the second independent clause

begins with a transitional phrase, such as in the first place, for example, in addition, and in conclusion. Use the

semicolon to separate items in a series that contain internal punctuation.

o Sentence fuses: If two independent clauses are joined with neither punctuation nor a coordinating conjunction, the

sentence is called a sentence fuse.

o Series/ lists: A series, also known as a list, includes at least three items.

126

o Sharply contrasting elements: Sharply contrasting elements are often defined by the words “not” and “unlike.”

o Simple sentence: The simple sentence contains one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.

o Subject verb agreement: Singular subjects need singular verbs whereas plural subjects need plural verbs.

o Subordinate clauses: The subordinate clause is also a group of words that cannot stand alone as a sentence; thus, it is a

fragment. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions, such as after, although, because, before, if,

unless, until, and when and contain both a subject and verb. Subordinate clauses tell who, where, how, why, when, or

under what conditions the main part of the sentence took place. Subordinate clauses may also begin with the four

relative pronouns: who, whom, which, and that.

o Subordinating conjunctions: Subordinating conjunctions, such as but not limited to, after, although, because, before, if,

unless, until, and when are used to create subordinate clauses.

o Syntax: Syntax refers to the words a writer chooses to express a thought and the order the writer places them in to form

a sentence.

o Titles of works: Titles of works are indicated with quotation marks and italics. See quotation marks and italics for

more information.

o Transitional phrases: Transitional phrases include, but are not limited to, as a matter of fact, as a result, in addition, in

fact, in other words, in the first place.

127

CHAPTER TWELVE: Practice Paragraphs

I. Fragments

II. Fragments, comma splices, and sentence Fuses

III. Commas

128

Practice Paragraphs:

For extra practice, carefully study the following paragraphs and look for the errors listed in each section. Then, based on your

grammar knowledge, rewrite the paragraphs on separate sheets of paper. Show your revisions to your writing instructor and ask

him or her how you did.

ONE: Fragments

Attending UCLA

Next year, I want to attend UCLA. Because it will help prepare me for a life’s work in medicine. Since my childhood. I

have always wanted to be a doctor. If I major in biology. I will learn a great deal about the human body and how it works. I took

several science classes at Long Beach City College. For example, I took physics, chemistry, and environmental science. Since I

did exceptionally well in these courses. I am certain that I will continue to do well at UCLA because I am confident, put school

first, and work hard. Because I want to spend my life as a doctor. I have volunteered my time at a hospital. At the hospital, which

was in an economically disadvantaged area. I learned that a doctor must above all else be comp assionate and listen to his patients.

I want to learn how to serve my patients well. While attending the UCLA School of Medicine.

First Job at Bulldog Stadium

When I was thirteen years old. I started my first job selling snacks in the stands at Bulldog Stadium. The reason I

worked at Bulldog Stadium was because I wanted to see the games for free. I quickly learned, however, that if I was going to

make any money. I couldn’t stand around and do nothing. At first, I sold only hotdogs. I’d run up and down the stands. Until my

legs burned. Of course, stuffing cash into my pockets kept my legs moving. Because I wanted to make more money. I started

selling hotdogs and Pepsis simultaneously. I carried a box full of hotdogs. On top of that a tray full of Pepsis. If someone yelled,

“Hotdog,” I’d ask them if they wanted a soda too, and they always did. I had a friend with whom I worked, and he was lazy.

Every time I saw him. He was leaning against the rail and eating the food that he was trying to sell. After the games, we’d walk

home together. He liked complaining about not making very much money. Once, while he was whining. I told him he should sell

hotdogs instead of eating them. He looked at me. With a blank face and said, “Are you calling me fat?” That night, I sat on my

porch step before going inside the house. I was thirteen years old, and I had sixty dollars. In the palm of my hand. My legs

burned, and I had blisters on my toes, but I didn’t care. As I put my money in my wallet.

129

TWO: Fragments, Comma Splices, and Sentence Fuses

My Study

My favorite room in the house is my study because it is where I sit at my desk to write. Over the past several months. I

have worked to create an environment that encourages those passions. For example, one wall is lined with bookshelves that

stretch from the floor to the ceiling, needless to say, they are stocked with books. I have poetry books, I have fiction books, I also

have reference books, such as the dictionary, the thesaurus, and books about rocks, bugs, and stars. Some of the shelves are not

full I left them empty to display my wife’s ceramic pots. Some of them are made with coils, some are thrown, and others are

sculpted, thus, the pots, the shelves, and the books create an environment that encourages literature and art. Which is just one

reason I love my study. On another wall is a twenty gallon fish tank. In it are freshwater fish, such as tiger barbs, catfish, mollies,

and red-tailed sharks. Along with the shelves, the books, the pots, and the aquarium, I have several photographs in my office. My

favorite photograph is black and white, it is a snapshot of my grandfather. In this photograph, he is playing his t rumpet at the

Rainbow Ballroom. Behind him, the other musicians dressed in their best black suits with sweat dripping down their faces. At

their fingertips are the congas, the tumbas, the quintos, the bass, the trombones, and the saxophones, and their eyes are alive,

there is salsa in the air, and the people are dancing. This is how I like to think of my office, it is not a study, it is a night club

where the happy ones are singing, laughing, and drinking. Because they know the music will not stop.

UC Irvine

When I was attending the University of California at Irvine, my roommates and I were college poor. Sometimes, we

lived off of the kindness of our neighbors, next door, lived four girls who knew how to cook. Because they felt sorry for us. They

brought us beans, Spanish rice, and enchiladas that we devoured in minutes. After they became sick of our begging, we were on

our own. At the grocery store, my roommates and I bought fruits and vegetables that were discounted because they were old, we

also bought cheap cans of jalapenos that were dented. We didn’t drive trucks that were so low they scraped against speed bumps

as the mufflers purred and the rims spun, we had cinder blocks, milk crates, and 2 x 4s that we used to build book shelves in the

evening, as our stomachs settled in for the night, we’d sit in our apartment and drink beer so old that it had lost its fizz, one by

one, each of us would take a book from the shelf, open it, and share what we had learned in class. My two roommates were

engineers. Who dreamed of building bridges in Peru and Mexico, and I was a comparative literature major who wanted to

become a published poet. We talked about timber, steel, and soil we talked about concrete imagery, alliteration, and the sublime,

these were the things that were shaping our future. After we graduated with our degrees tucked in our back pockets. We went off

in pursuit of our dreams now, when we get together, we sink into the couch and talk about work, but before long, we are lost in

conversations about life in general. They are the same conversations that we had as twenty -one year old students. Who were

inspired by ideas that cost less than a can of beer.

130

THREE: Commas

The Citrus Trees

Last night because the season’s first frost was going to settle in the valley I went outside and took a close look at my

young citrus trees. I have a lemon, an orange and a lime. The trees which I purchased at Home Depot, are only two to three feet

high. The foliage was tipped with the soft and delicate shoots of new growth, and I knew that the freeze might kill the young

leaves. In my shed I discovered three unused plastic tarps. The tarps which I bought to cover the tile floor while painting t he

kitchen had eyelets so that the plastic sheets could be secured to the ground. In the garage I dug through my tool box, and found

the metal pins that I normally use for the tent. I grabbed the hammer and marched outside. By then the grass was already showing

the night’s early frost. I started sneezing and my cheeks, and nose burned. I unrolled the tarps, draped them over the redwood

stakes supporting the trees, pulled out the edges of the plastic, and pinned them down. The citrus trees stood under a tent and I

hoped that in the morning the leaves would still be bright and green not black, withered, and curled.

131

INDEX

In addition to the pages listed below, please see CHAPTER TEN: Commonly Confused Words and CHAPTER Eleven: Grammar

Terms and Their Definition.

Abbreviations for Parenthetical Citations, Works Cited, and Annotated Bibliographies 73

Adjectives 23-34

Adverb clauses 122

Adverbs 23-24

Annotated bibliography, how to write (MLA) 71

Annotated bibliography, sample (MLA) 72

Apostrophes 13

Appositives 14

Brainstorming (listing) 75

Capitalization (works and in titles) 39

Clichés 44

Colons 9, 14

Comma splices 8-9

Commas 15-17

Complete sentences 7

Complex sentences 10

Compound-complex sentences 10

Compound sentences 10

Conjunctive adverbs 17, 21

Coordinate adjectives 16

Coordinating conjunctions 15

Dashes 9,18

Ellipsis marks 19

Fragments 7-8

Helping verbs vs. declarative verbs 31

How to Write an Essay 73-83

Hyphens 40

Indefinite pronouns 27-28

Independent clauses 7

Italics and underlining 40-41

MLA Author Named in a Signal Phrase to Cite Direct Quotations—the Basics 61

MLA essay format 52

Nonessential information 16

Numbers 41-42

Outlining 76-79

Paraphrasing (MLA) 54

Parenthetical citations for in-text citations (MLA) 55-58

Parenthetical information 16

132

Participial phrases 15

Past participles 33-35

Plagiarism 50

Point of view 46

Prepositional phrases 15

Prepositions 24-27

Process—How to Write an Essay 74-87

Pronoun reference and clarity 28

Pronoun-antecedent agreement 27-28

Pronouns 27

Quotation marks 20

Quotations of prose and poetry, long (MLA) 60

Quotations of prose and poetry, short (MLA) 59

Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that) 10, 29-30

Research and plagiarism 49-50

Run-on sentences 8

Semicolons 9, 21

Sentence fuses 8

Series/ lists 14, 15

Sharply contrasting elements 17

Signal phrases 17

Signal Phrases for in-text citations (MLA) 55-57

Simple sentence 10

Slang 44-45

Social media jargon 45-46

Subject verb agreement 36-37

Subordinating conjunctions 9-10

Summarizing (MLA) 53

Syntax 11

Titles of works 39, 40-41

Transitional phrases 17, 21

Underlining (see italics) 40-41

Voice 47

Works cited page, how to format (MLA) 62

Works cited page, how to make citations (MLA) 62-70

Works cited page, sample (MLA) 70

133

Works Cited

“53 Slang Terms by Decade.” How Stuff Works, Culture | Etiquette & Languages, Publications International, Ltd, 20 September

2007, http://people.howstuffworks.com/53-slang-terms-by-decade.htm.

“Abbreviations Used in Emails and Text Messages.” MacMillan Dictionary, 3 November 2015.http://www.macmillandictionary.

com/us/thesauruscategory/american/abbreviations-used-in-emails-and-text-messages.

“Commonly Confused Words.” St. Louis Community College Writing Center at Meramec. 2004, https://www.google.

com/#q=stlcc+commonly+confused+words.

Berry, Chris. “Writing out Numbers.” Purdue Online Writing Lab. 16 November 2011, https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

resource/593/01/.

Brian Klems, “12 clichés All Writers Should Avoid.” Writer’s Digest: The Writer’s Dig, August 15, 2012, http://www.

writersdigest.com/online-editor/12-cliches-all-writers-should-avoid.

Climasko, Tony . “Prepositions.” Purdue Online Writing Lab. Last edited by Allen Brizee, 26 February 2009,

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/engagementprint/5/.

Dominguez, David. Work Done Right. University of Arizona Press, 2003, p. 11.

Douglass, Frederick. “Learning How to Read and Write.” The Writer’s Presence: a Pool of Readings, edited by Donald

McQuade and Peter Atwan, eight edition, Bedford/ St. Martin, 2015, p. 111.

Editors of the Webster’s New World Dictionaries. Webster’s New World Pocket Dictionary. Editor Jonathon L. Goldman et. al.,

fourth edition, Wililey Publishing, Inc., 2 February 2016. p. 2 et. al.

Esquivel, Laura. Like Water for Chocolate. Anchor, 1995, p. 52.

Hacker, Diana and Nancy Sommers. A Pocket Style Manual. Seventh edition, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2015, pp. 23-25; p. 33; p. 49;

pp. 79-80; p. 303.

Lorca, Federico Garcia. In Search of Duende. Translated by Christopher Maurer. New Directions, 1998, p. 23.

Modern Language Association of America. MLA Handbook. Eight edition. Modern Language Association of America. 2016. p.

20.

Rodriguez, Richard. Hunger of Memory: the Education of Richard Rodriguez. Bantam, 2004, p. 20.

Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Slyvan Barnet. Signet Classic, 1998. 1.1.48.

Thomas, Dylan. “A Few Words of a Kind–1957” Suncloud, 2013, https://soundcloud.com/audio-oddities/dylanth2.

Paiz, Joshua M. et al. “Making Subjects and Verbs Agree.” Purdue Online Writing Lab. April 1 2014. https://owl.english.purdue.

edu/owl/resource/599/01/.

134

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Reedley College Sabbatical Committee for supporting this project. I would also like to thank

my colleagues for contributing materials and guidance. In addition, I owe thanks to Reading and Writing Center tutor and

embedded tutor Laura Hand for the countless hours she spent proofreading this book. Thanks also to our administration who

continuously supports this work. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their support, especially my wife Alma C.

Dominguez.

With special contributions by instructors from Reedley College: Eileen Apperson, Emily Berg, David Borofka, Deborah Borofka, Vanessa Buldo, Linda Cooley,

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